eChapters

Formulating feed tailored to specific species is a crucial element of modern aquaculture, ensuring that each fish or shellfish receives the precise nutrients needed for healthy growth, reproduction, and overall well-being. Different aquatic species have unique dietary patterns, digestive systems, and nutrient requirements, making customized diets essential. Carnivorous species like trout and seabass need protein-rich, energy-dense feeds with animal-derived components such as fishmeal or poultry by-products. In contrast, omnivores like catfish and tilapia can digest plant-based proteins like soybean meal and groundnut cake efficiently. Herbivorous fish such as rohu and grass carp perform well on fiber-rich diets incorporating aquatic plant ingredients. Shrimp require feeds high in specific amino acids, cholesterol, and minerals such as calcium and magnesium to support molting and exoskeleton development. Larvae and juveniles across species need highly digestible feeds fortified with micronutrients and immune-enhancing

Protected cultivation is an innovative farming approach that involves either naturally ventilated or customized temperature-controlled structures, designed to suit regional weather patterns and the specific needs of cultivated plants. Primarily utilized for vegetables and floriculture, these protected structures create a controlled environment that shields crops from unpredictable climate fluctuations.
This technology grants farmers precise control over crucial factors such as temperature, humidity, light intensity, disease prevention, fertigation, and irrigation, catering to the unique requirements of each crop. Consequently, the practice empowers farmers to enhance profits and achieve a year-round harvest.
GREENHOUSE CONSTRUCTION
Greenhouse construction entails the strategic design and assembly of a structure that offers a controlled environment for optimal plant growth. The framework is typically built using materials such as aluminum, steel, or treated wood, while the covering may consist of polyethylene film, polycarbonate sheets, or glass—each selected for its durability and light-transmitting properties.
Critical aspects of greenhouse construction include selecting an appropriate site, proper orientation for maximum sunlight exposure, establishing a stable foundation, and ensuring efficient framing and cladding. The overall objective is to enhance light penetration, maintain suitable temperature and humidity levels, and ensure adequate ventilation to support healthy and productive crop development.

Econometrics : Mathematics and sophisticated computing applied to economics. Econometricians crunch data in search of economic relationships that have statistical significance. Sometimes this is done to test a theory; at other times the computers churn the numbers until they come up with an interesting result. Some economists are fierce critics of theory-free econometrics.

Economic Appraisal : See Economic evaluation.

Economic Burden of Disease : See Cost of Illness.

Economic Competition : The effort of two or more parties to secure the business of a third party by offering, usually under fair or equitable rules of business practice, the most favorable terms.

Economic evaluation (Economic appraisal) : The comparison of alternative courses of action in terms of their costs and consequences, with a view to making a choice.

Economic Evaluation : The systematic appraisal of costs and benefits of projects, normally undertaken to determine the relative economic efficiency of programs. See also Cost-benefit analysis, Cost-effectiveness analysis, Cost-minimization analysis, Cost-utility analysis.

Economic indicator : A statistic used for judging the health of an economy, such as GDP per head, the rate of unemployment or the rate of inflation. Such statistics are often subject to huge revisions in the months and years after they are first published, thus causing difficulties and embarrassment for the economic policymakers who rely on them.

In some experiments the result can be predicted with certainty. For example, the bulb will stop glowing when switched off, the evolution of hydrogen gas when zinc reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid. Such phenomenon where the result can be predicted with certainty is known as deterministic phenomenon. But in some experiments the result cannot be predicted with certainty. For example, Sales of a firm, profit made by a company, yield of a crop, etc. Such phenomenon where the result cannot be predicted with certainty are known as probabilistic or random phenomenon. Such phenomena are frequently observed in economics, business, agriculture, social science, biology, etc., and in our day to day life.

The theory of probability is a very important branch of statistics which provides a numerical measure of uncertainty.

Glazing materials are commonly used to create transparent or translucent surfaces in architectural elements like windows and walls. Popular glazing materials include glass, acrylic, and polycarbonate, each offering distinct characteristics and uses. Glass, especially tempered or laminated varieties, provides strength, durability, and safety. Plastics like acrylic and polycarbonate, on the other hand, are lightweight and durable alternatives. The choice of glazing material depends on various factors, such as the desired level of transparency, required strength, thermal performance, and aesthetic preferences. In agricultural structures like greenhouses, glazing materials play a crucial
role in regulating light and temperature. Common options include glass, rigid plastics such as polycarbonate, acrylic, and fiberglass, as well as plastic films like polyethylene. Each material comes with its own advantages, including light transmission, impact resistance, durability, and cost, which influence its suitability for specific applications and climates.
Three critical properties of materials, coatings, and constructions used in windows, skylights, translucent panels, or other products that allow sunlight into a building are:
1. Thermal conductance (U-value)
2. Solar Heat Gain Coefficient (SHGC)
3. Visible Light Transmittance (VT)
The appropriate values for these properties depend on the climate, size, and positioning of the aperture. It’s common for a building to use multiple types of glazing, with different options for various sides and heights.

Introduction
Marine Pollution
The pollution of the sea substances that humans have directly or indirectly introducedinto the marine environment, which can have negative impacts on the ecosystem, including health risks to people, obstructions to marine activities, and a decline in the quality of seawater.
It happens when invading species or chemicals or particles or garbage from industry, agriculture, or residential sources find their way into the ocean and can have detrimental impacts.
The majority of maritime pollution originates on land. Nonpoint causes of pollution include wind-blown debris and agricultural runoff.
A great deal of potentially harmful substances stick to small particles, which plankton and benthos animals (most of which are deposit or filter feeders) then consume.
Pesticides swiftly find their way into marine food webs after entering the marine ecology. These pesticides can induce diseases and mutations once they enter food webs, which can be dangerous for both humans and the entire food chain.
Marine food webs may also be exposed to toxic metals. These have the power to alter biochemistry, behavior, reproduction, tissue composition, and growth inhibition in marine organisms. Additionally, a lot of animal diets contain a lot of fish meal or fish hydrolysate. Toxins from the sea can thus spread to land animals and then show up in meat and dairy products.

Farmyard Manure is the manure prepared by using the mixture of dung and urine soaked litter by microorganisms.

Good farmyard manure is one

Introduction

Impact Assessment can be broadly defined as the prediction or estimation of the consequences of a current or proposed action (project, policy, technology). Emergence of EIA can be related to National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969 in the USA. This act is now considered as model legislation for implementation all over the world. Today we have more than 100 countries that have adopted EIA legislation. EIA requirements of aid agencies and funding agencies are typically based on the principles included in the NEPA. In any project planning, along with the traditional technical (engineering) and economic considerations the NEPA requires environmental impact considerations. Environmental impact statements (EISs) are prepared as action forcing mechanism in NEPA that describe the environmental consequences of major actions which significantly affect the quality of human environment. Thus, the primary purpose of EIA is to encourage the environmental considerations in planning and decision making process. Finally, it is expected to arrive at actions which are more environmentally compatible.

Citrus is one of the most important fruit crops of the world. The most important commercial citrus fruits in India is mandarin oranges followed by sweet oranges, lemons and acid limes. Citrus fruits are used for fresh fruit juices, processing into squashes, marmalades and its essential oils from peel are widely used in flavouring, perfumery and cosmetic industry. The citrus peel is one of the important sources for manufacture of pectin.

It is believed that most of the species under the genus citrus are native to tropical and subtropical regions of South-East Asia, particularly India, China and in the region between these two countries. The north-eastern region of India is considered as one of the natural homes for few species of citrus. The other major citrus producing countries of the world are Brazil, USA, India, China,Mexico, Spain, Egypt, Italy, Indonesia and Trukey.

Sweet Orange (Cirus sinensis Osbeck) or Mosambi

Sweet orange is one of the most widely favored citrus fruit of of the world. Its scientific name is Citurs sinensis Osbeck. The sweet oranges are generally round to oval in shape; tight skinned with solid central core. The skin is yellow to orange in colour, smooth and pulp is yellow to orange or reddish. The segments are tightly attached to one another. The commercially important varieties are Malta (Blood Red), Mosambi and Satgudi. Other exotic varieties like Valencia, Washington Navel of USA and Shamouti of Isreal.

Automatic microclimate monitoring in greenhouses utilizes sensors and control systems to gather and analyze data on environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, light, and soil conditions. This data is then used to adjust and regulate the greenhouse environment, ensuring optimal conditions for plant growth. By maintaining ideal climate parameters, this system enhances crop production efficiency and supports sustainable farming practices.
MAIN COMPONENTS OF A GREENHOUSE ENVIRONMENT
Various factors influence the environment inside a greenhouse, with heat, humidity, light levels, and ventilation being some of the most important. Achieving the right balance of these factors is crucial for maximizing crop yields. For example, efficient air circulation promotes better plant growth, ensuring higher productivity.
Let’s now take a closer look at the main components of a greenhouse environment:
Light
The right amount and quality of light are essential for photosynthesis, which supports proper plant growth. IoT-enabled sensors can monitor light levels inside the greenhouse and adjust artificial lighting to complement natural sunlight, ensuring optimal conditions for the crops.
Air Quality
Air quality plays a crucial role in plant development. The concentration of carbon dioxide (CO?) and oxygen (O?) must be carefully regulated. IoT sensors can measure these gases and adjust ventilation systems in real-time to maintain optimal levels for healthy plant growth.

Salt affected soils occupy 962.2 m ha globally which accounts for 33% of the arable land. In India 8.373 m ha is affected with salts. Of which 2.359 m ha are alkali soils, 3.829 m ha are saline soils and 2.185 m ha coastal saline soils. Reclamation of these soils provides additional area for food grains production and employment.

16.1 Introduction

The broad bean is a hardy plant and can withstand sufficiently cold temperatures. It is cultivated on a small scale in India but widely cultivated in Latin America. This is the only bean which is sown in autumn and is grown as a winter crop (in temperate countries). Broad bean is used as green, shelled and dry beans and as a feed for livestock. Plants have distinguishing features like square and erect growing stems which grow up to 30 cm (dwarf cultivars) to 100 cm (tall cultivars). 

Forests support diverse insect communities that contribute to pollination, decomposition, nutrient cycling and other ecological processes. Certain insects, however, become destructive pests when environmental changes weaken natural regulation and favour population outbreaks. Increasing temperature, altered precipitation, drought and land-use change can affect insect development, reproduction, survival and geographical range. Climate change may also disrupt synchronization between forest trees and associated insects, intensify native-pest outbreaks and facilitate the establishment of invasive species. Such changes can reduce tree growth, increase mortality and transform forest landscapes. This chapter examines climate-related forest-pest dynamics, ecological consequences and mitigation strategies for strengthening forest health and resilience.

10.1. Preservation through canning

• Process of sealing food stuffs hermetically in containers and sterilizing them by heat for long storage

• In 1804, Appert in France invented this process.

• Also known as appertizing.

• Saddington in England - First to describe a method of canning of foods in 1807.

• In 1810, Peter Durand obtained first British Patent on canning of foods in tin containers.

• In 1817, William Underwood introduced canning of fruits on commercial scale in U.S.A.

• Fruits and vegetables are canned in season when raw material is available in surplus.

• Canned products are sold in off season for better returns to grower.

10.1.1. Principles and process of canning

Population Growth
Around 1810, it took all of human history for the population to reach one billion. This quadrupled to 2 billion people in just 120 years (1930). Then, in 45 years, 4 billion (1975). From 4.4 billion in 1980 to 5.8 billion in 1997 and 7 billion now, the world’s population has increased. It is predicted that in less than 40 years, that number will double again to 11 billion. This indicates that more people than ever before are joining the group every day.
The United Nations Population Fund (UNPF) predicts that by 2025, there will be 10 billion people on Earth, and by the next century, there will be 14 billion.
Birth rates have decreased along with mortality rates, although death rates have decreased more quickly. In most affluent countries, there are approximately 1.6 births for every death, but in less developed countries, the ratio is closer to 3.3 births for every death. Every twelve years, a billion more people live on the planet.
Reasons Behind the Quick Population Growth
• A rise in the distribution and production of food.
• Gains in the field of public health
• medical technology, as well as improvements in education and living standards in many poor countries.

A drop spillway is a type of structure used to release extra water from a dam or reservoir. It is characterized by a steep or nearly vertical drop in the water channel, which allows excess water to be discharged safely while reducing its energy. The main components of a drop spillway include a crest or weir at the top, a drop section for the falling water, and a downstream channel equipped with energy dissipation features to control erosion. The suitability of a site for a drop spillway depends on factors such as the terrain, soil stability, and flow conditions.
A spillway in general is designed to release surplus water from a reservoir once it reaches its storage limit. Water usually flows over the spillway during flood situations, when the inflow exceeds the dam’s capacity. Typically located at the top of the reservoir, a sphelps prevent water from overtopping the dam. In addition to spillways, some dams have bottom outlets controlled by gates or valves to release water. In cases where there is no overflow spillway, dams may rely entirely on these bottom outlets for flood control.
DEFINITION OF SPILLWAYS
A spillway is a structure that enables the controlled release of water from a dam or levee to flow downstream, usually into the original riverbed. Before examining its different types, it’s essential to understand why a spillway is necessary for dams.
A spillway acts as a channel to safely discharge surplus floodwater once a reservoir reaches its full capacity. Every dam is equipped with a spillway as a critical safety feature. Spillways can be integrated within the dam itself, positioned at its edge, or constructed as separate entities. It is essential that the spillway has adequate capacity; an undersized spillway could cause the dam to overflow, potentially leading to severe damage or complete failure of the dam.

Abstract

Conversion of an already arid land into a desert through indiscriminate human actions magnified by droughts. Such actions include overgrazing, repeated burning, intensive farming, and stripping of vegetation for firewood. One quarter of the earth’s surface is threatened by desertification - an area of over 3.6 billion hectares. Since 1990, Six million hectares of productive land are lost every year due to land degradation. Desertification threatens the liveihoods of more than one billion people and has already made over 135 million people homeless. Desertification does not occur in linear, easily mappable patterns. Deserts advance erratically, forming patches on their borders. Areas far from natural deserts can degrade quickly to barren soil, rock, or sand through poor land management.

Introduction

Global warming directly ref lects on rising sea levels due to melting of ice caps and natural expansion of sea water as it becomes warmer. Consequently, areas adjoining the coast and wetlands could be frequently flooded and the distribution pattern of monsoon rains may alter, through more intense downpours, storms and hurricanes. The meteorological data available at the Annamalai University, for the tail end of the Cauvery river delta region of Tamil Nadu State, India, shows that the average annual rainfall during the last 10 years segment has increased by 233 mm compared to the average of the previous 10 years segment (1588 mm and 1355 mm, respectively). In contrast, annual evaporation has reduced by 453 mm (2153 mm and 1700mm, respectively) (Kathiresan, 2011). The year 1990 was the hottest year in the last century with all other five of the warmest years in the century falling within the last 22 years. This trend indicates that f lash floods in wetlands and droughts in uplands have become more frequent. Such a changing climate warrants reinforcement of climate resilience in farming to protect the livelihoods of farmers and the biodiversity. The sub-project of the National Agricultural Innovation Project implemented by Annamalai University in Tamilnadu, sponsored by ICAR has identified three types of clusters in each of the four disadvantaged districts, based on the prevailing agro-ecology viz. wetland clusters, rainfed upland clusters and coastal shore farming clusters. The constraints for farming and livelihoods in these clusters are identified as frequent floods, inundation, drought, weed problems, crop failure, and lack of diversification (Kathiresan, 2009a and Kathiresan, 2010). Farming systems that would be resilient to such climatic and farming constraints designed through rigorous institutional and on-farm experiments (Kathiresan, 2007; Kathiresan, 2009b and Kathiresan, 2012) were disseminated for adoption by the farmers in these clusters.

Importance of Food Storage

Food storage is both a traditional domestic skill and is important industrially. Food is stored by almost every human society and by many animals. Storing of food has several main purposes:

•Storage of harvested and processed plant and animal food products for distribution to consumers

•Enabling a better balanced diet throughout the year

•Reducing kitchen waste by preserving unused or uneaten food for later use

•Preserving pantry food, such as spices or dry ingredients like rice and flour, for eventual use in cooking

•Preparedness for catastrophes, emergencies and periods of food scarcity or famine

•Religious reasons (Example: LDS Church leaders instruct church members to store food)

•Protection from animals or theft

Deep learning has significantly advanced automated plant phenotyping and disease detection by enabling computers to identify complex patterns in large volumes of plant imagery and sensor data. This chapter examines the fundamentals and applications of deep learning architectures in plant science. It discusses convolutional neural networks for image-based plant analysis and advanced architectures including recurrent neural networks, transformers and hybrid models. Data acquisition through imaging and sensor technologies is also considered. The chapter highlights how deep learning can support automated identification of plant characteristics, disease symptoms and crop health conditions. Challenges related to datasets, environmental variability, computational requirements and model generalization are examined alongside emerging research opportunities.