eChapters

Government schemes, policies, and training initiatives serve as vital enablers for the expansion of natural beekeeping, offering essential financial, technical, and institutional support to farmers and rural entrepreneurs. These interventions are designed to enhance productivity, sustainability, and economic resilience, particularly among smallholders, tribal communities, and women.

Subsidies and grant-based programs help reduce entry barriers by covering costs related to indigenous and modern hive types, protective gear, and honey processing equipment. This financial assistance empowers marginal farmers to embrace beekeeping while supporting certification and branding efforts that connect them with higher-value markets.

Beekeeping is now officially recognized within national and state-level agricultural policy as a key allied activity that promotes biodiversity and strengthens rural livelihoods. These policies often integrate natural beekeeping within wider organic farming frameworks and support food safety regulations, quality assurance, and export facilitation.

Government-led training programs—delivered through agricultural universities, extension networks, and specialist institutions—equip beekeepers with knowledge on colony management, disease control, and sustainable harvesting. These sessions emphasize natural methods that avoid synthetic inputs, safeguarding both pollinator health and ecological integrity.

Label: Technical information about a registered pesticide in the form of printed material attached to, or printed on, the pesticide container. It is illegal to use the pesticide in ways inconsistent with the label.

Labella (sing. labellum): In certain flies, paired lobes at the apex of the proboscis, derived from labial palps; apical spongelike structure on the proboscis of nonbiting muscoid flies (Fig. 156).

Galactometer: It is an instrument used for recording the specific gravity of the milk.

Galactose: It is an aldohexose sugar obtained by hydrolysis of lactose.

Galactosidase: An enzyme (actase) that hydrolyzes a galactoside.

Galactoside: A glycoside that yields galactose on hydrolysis.

Galactosyl: A glycosyl radical C₆H₁₁O₅ that is derived from galactose.

Introduction

The traditional approach to transferring genes from wild to cultivated species is based on interspecific hybridization followed by selection of hybrids that combine the trait with the cultivated genetic background. This breeding strategy is achieved by various backcross generations in which the selected hybrids at each generation are crossed back to the cultivated genotype with the aim of reducing the wild genome and its undesirable traits. The use of molecular markers has allowed this breeding approach to be greatly improved, since these markers directly reveal genetic variability through DNA analysis (Staub et al. 1996), and therefore their detection is not influenced by environmental effects. Since the development of numerous molecular markers for plant genometatic analysis, the possibility to select the genotype instead of the phenotype has been closely examined, leading to the concept of molecular marker-assisted selection (MAS; Paterson et al. 1991). The basic concept of MAS for crop improvement has been well discussed by Collard et al. (2005) which is most appropriate for this chapter. The most widely used markers suitable for MAS are RFLP, RAPD, AFLP, and SSR. Their common origin is point mutation or chromosome rearrangements that were accumulated during the evolution of the species without negatively influencing their survival and reproduction. The choice of the most suitable markers for MAS can differ and depends on the labor required for their detection, possibility of revealing single or multiple loci, dominant or co dominant nature and costs.

Shellfish are aquatic invertebrates characterized by a hard outer shell or exoskeleton, encompassing a wide range of mollusks and crustaceans. This group includes economically and gastronomically important species such as crabs, lobsters, shrimp, clams, oysters, mussels, and scallops. In addition to their value as seafood, many shellfish species are commercially harvested or cultured for various purposes. Reproductive strategies among shellfish are diverse. Most species exhibit sexual reproduction with distinct male and female individuals, though some, like certain gastropods, are hermaphroditic or reproduce through parthenogenesis. Fertilization is typically external in many mollusks, such as oysters, where gametes are released into the water column. In contrast, crustaceans like crabs undergo internal fertilization. The fertilized eggs develop into planktonic larvae that drift with currents before settling to the bottom and metamorphosing into juvenile shellfish. This complex life cycle plays a critical role in population dynamics and aquaculture practices.
PENAEID SHRIMP, FRESHWATER PRAWNS (MACROBRACHIUM)
Penaeid shrimp, members of the family Penaeidae in the suborder Dendrobranchiata, include numerous economically significant species such as the tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon), whiteleg shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei), Atlantic white shrimp (Litopenaeus setiferus), and Indian prawn (Fenneropenaeus indicus). These crustaceans are integral to both commercial fisheries and aquaculture operations in marine and, increasingly, freshwater environments. Reproduction in penaeid shrimp involves external fertilization following mating and spawning in open water, typically at depths shallower than 50 meters. During copulation, the male transfers sperm via a spermatophore, while the female releases mature oocytes. Fertilization occurs in the water column. Penaeid shrimp are iteroparous, capable of spawning multiple times annually with short intervals between reproductive cycles. This high fecundity supports their success in aquaculture systems.

Ber (Ziziphus maruritiana Lam.) is cultivated all over the desert part of the Indian subcontinent for its fresh fruits, which are rich in vitamin C, vitamin A and vitamin B-complex and minerals. It can be successfully cultivated even in the most marginal ecosystems of the subtropics and tropics. Ber or Indian jujube belongs to the genus Zizphus of the family Rhamnaceae and order Rhamnales. Ber is adopted to ecologically poor, drought prone areas, which encounter recurrent crop failures and thereby economic crises. It yields nutritious fruit, rich in vitamins and minerals than apple even in drought years and its cultivation is highly cost effective owing to very low input requirement. Ber cultivation also provides employment for people in different farm operations for production and sale of the produce. In India, Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu are major ber producing states. The area under cultivation with this fruit is 8.7 lakh ha with an annual production of 8.9 lakh tones in India (Baloda et al., 2012). About 125 varieties of ber are available in India. A few of these varieties are known for taste, size, amount of pulp and higher yields. The cultivars Umran, Kathapal and Gola are the most promising varieties of ber in North India (Azam-Ali et al., 2001).

Nutritive Value

Many people are unaware that the ber is one of the most nutritive fruit, since ber is a common fruit. It is one of the richest sources of vitamin C, next only to aonla and Guava but better than citrus fruit and apple. The fruit pulp contains 13-20% total soluble solids and 0.20-0.80% acidity at fully ripened fruit. Ripe fruit of Umran contains 117 mg ascorbic acid/100 g of pulp. Ber fruit contains β-carotene (vitamin-A) at 81 µg/100 g of fruit, 5.6% sucrose, 1.54% glucose, 2.08% fructose, 1.00% starch and 1.13% total carbohydrates. Due this, so ber is often called the “poor man’s fruit”. Table 1 represent the nutritional composition of different ber varieties.

While describing fish, we need complete general information about the different specimens of fish included in the particular class or grade. A flow sheet of the general characters used in this concern may be tabulated as:

1. Origin of the term: The term Pisces comes from the old version of the plural of the Latin word piscis or singular word piscus meaning “fish.”

2. Literal meaning and definition: It describes either the creature or the meat from the creature. It is a streamlined, cold-blooded aquatic vertebrate with scales and gills,

3. Origin and evolution: The first fish appeared around 530 million years ago during the Cambrian period and then underwent a long period of evolution so that, today, they are by far the most diverse group of vertebrates. The Devonian Period is known as the “Age of Fishes”.

Aquaculture is currently the fastest-expanding food production industry worldwide, and its continued growth depends greatly on the successful rearing of larvae and juvenile stages. The larval and nursery phases act as a crucial link between the breeding process and the grow-out phase. These early developmental stages are highly sensitive and demand strict environmental regulation, tailored nutrition, and close management.
This article explores the core principles and infrastructure necessary for effective larval rearing and nursery operations in aquaculture. It covers essential techniques, feeding protocols, water quality control, health management practices, and the key challenges encountered in raising both finfish and shellfish.
SIGNIFICANCE OF LARVAL REARING AND NURSERY PRACTICES
• Promotes high survival rates and optimal growth during the most delicate stages of life.
• Produces robust juveniles ready for transfer to grow-out systems such as ponds, cages, or raceways.
• Lowers overall production expenses by reducing early-stage mortality.
• Aids in selective breeding efforts and the production of disease-free stock.
LARVAL REARING
The eggs are elliptical in shape, typically ranging from 1 to 2 mm in diameter, and are attached at one end to a substrate using a short stalk. Initially, the eggs are yellow, but as embryonic development progresses, they turn brownish, and pigmentation appears on the yolk sac. The incubation period generally spans 82 to 100 hours. Hatching begins when the egg membrane ruptures at the head end of the larva, which is the unattached portion, and continues along the dorsal side as the tail begins to move actively.

Tropical fruit tree are important crops which supplement and improve the quality of diet. Many of the species have multi-purpose uses in that they produce non food products such as fuel, timber, fodder, medicines and industrial products for small holders. Harvesting from these trees enable rural people to provide nutrition for a balanced diet and generate income thus alleviate poverty. Tamarind (Tamarindus indica L) can be found throughout much of the tropics, it is grown unattended in backyards, roadsides or waste lands. Tamarind is ideally suited for avenue plantings as a roadsides tree, in and around villages as a multipurpose species for agro-forestry system or as protective firebreaks for forest margins. It is a valuable timber species widely used for making furniture, tool handles, charcoal, oil mills, rice pounders and fuel wood. The leaves are an important source of food and herbal medicine and the edible pulp of ripe fruits is used as a flavouring agent in cooking, soups, jams, chutneys, sauces, pickles etc. The fruit pulp of tamarind forms the “Tamarind of Commerce”. The name tamarind is derived from the Arabic word ‘Tamar-u’l-Hind’ because the dark brown pulp of the fruit was thought to resemble dried dates. It was therefore called the Tamere-hindi or ‘date of India. The production of Tamarind in India was estimated 201000 tonees for year 2017-18 (Horticulture statistics, 2018), India is the world’s largest producer of tamarind products. It is particularly abundant in the India states of Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal. The production in India is mainly concentrated in the drier southern states and the produce is collected by the villagers and sold in the market. In India, the average production of tamarind pods per tree is 175 kg and processed pulp is 70 kg/tree (Kulkarni et al., 1993).

Pig production is concentrated mainly in the North-eastern corner of the country and consists primarily of backyard and informal sector producers. Though pig population is only 2% of all the livestock animals, Pork production in India  represents 7% of the country’s total meat production. This value is highest compared to any other species of meat animals.

Accuracy

The degree of closeness of the determined value to the nominal or known true value under prescribed conditions. This is sometimes termed trueness.

Analyte

A specific chemical moiety being measured, which can be intact drug, bio molecule or its derivative, metabolite, and/or degradation product in a biologic matrix.

Analytical run (or batch)

A complete set of analytical and study samples with appropriate number of standards and QCs for their validation. Several runs (or batches) may be completed in one day, or one run (or batch) may take several days to complete.

Biological matrix

A discrete material of biological origin that can be sampled and processed in a reproducible manner. Examples are blood, serum, plasma, urine, faces, saliva, sputum, and various discrete tissues.

The Tenth Five Year Plan (GoI 2002), for 2002 through 2007, has put emphasis on natural resource management through rainwater harvesting, groundwater recharging measures and controlling groundwater exploitation, watershed development, treatment of waterlogged areas. With regard to application of agricultural inputs like fertilizer and pesticides, the Plan stated that factors such as imbalanced use of nitrogenous (N), phosphatic (P) and postassic (K) fertilisers, increased deficiency of micronutrients and decreased soil organic carbon would be addressed through a holistic agri-environmental approach stressing Integrated Plant Nutrient and Pest Management. Further, the Tenth Plan document recognizes organic farming as a ‘thrust area’ in the sustainable use and management of resources in agriculture.

The trajectory of Indian agriculture and its associated environmental problems has brought about recognition that future agricultural growth and productivity will have to occur simultaneously with environmental sustainability. The environmental challenges, especially in terms of land degradation and groundwater depletion, water logging and excessive use of chemical inputs are posing problems for the future of Indian agriculture. To address the problems, policies have laid emphasis on promoting sustainable agriculture including organic farming. Differential approaches and policy instruments, however, will be required to address these problems. The shift from input-intensive to sustainable, particularly organic farming is a difficult task as it involves a number of policy measures dealing with a variety of issues ranging from the transfer of information and technology to the development of markets. Another difficult task, and perhaps more difficult, relates to marginal and small farmers – which comprise a substantial part of Indian agriculture. Although these marginal and small farmers have been considered organic by ‘default’, severe resource constraints make a shift to the modern sense of organic farming prohibitive.

The Indian government has been undertaking measures to promote organic farming with the aim to improve soil fertility and help to double the farmers’ incomes by the year 2022. The Prime Minister had visited Sikkim—which is India’s first organic state—and encouraged other states to replicate the “Sikkim model”. Some of the policy initiatives to promote organic farming and exports include development of an organic regulation for exports by the Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA), removal of quantitative restriction on organic food exports, providing subsidies to farmers under the Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY) in partnership with the state governments, and other schemes such as the Mission Organic Value Chain Development for North Eastern Region. Despite these initiatives, a recent survey-based study covering 418 organic farmers across different states of India suggests that a move to organic farming methods may not be that easy and organic farmers are not getting the expected premium price for their produce.

India is today the second largest producer of fruit and vegetable after China with a total annual production of 281.75 million tons in 2017-18. Fruit and vegetables are essential components of the human diet and nutrition constitute. Fruit and vegetable are also element of diversification in agriculture for additional income generating resource and employment generation area. Although India is the largest producer of fruit in the world, the production per capita is only about 100 g per day. Huge losses to the extent of 20 to 40% of the total production are reported due to lack of adequate infrastructure and transportation facilities and higher the transportation cost. Thus the per capita availability of fruits is further reduced to 60 -80 g per day which is almost half the requirement for a balanced diet. The fruit production in India has recorded a growth rate of 3.9%, whereas the fruit processing sector has grown at about 20% per annum. However, the growth rates have been extensively higher for frozen fruits and vegetables (121%) and dehydrated fruits and vegetables (24%).

Fruit and vegetables are mostly seasonal crops but they are demanded by consumers throughout the year. They are very highly perishable in nature, which is difficult to preserve for the longer period of time under ambient storage conditions. The low temperature storage retarded the activity of various biological and biochemical agents of spoilage and provides longer shelf life to the fruit and vegetables The temperature is brought down by taking out the heat with the help of mechanical refrigeration, This system is based on a liquid absorbing heat as it change to a gas. The more common mechanical refrigeration system use a refrigerant such as (Ammonia, Freon etc.,) takes out the heat from the chamber/ store as it is expand. The spoilage agents are microorganism such as (e.g., bacteria, yeast and molds etc.) and larva. Optimum storage temperature for most products is one slightly above the freezing point of the product. Some fruit and vegetables are particularly sensitive to storage temperature are susceptible to called storage disease when stored at temperature below as or above the critical temperature e.g.,

Oak: A hard, durable, and very strong wood used for many purposes like furniture, flooring, decoration etc.

Octane number: It is the percetage of iso-octane (C₈H₁₈) in the mixture of iso-octane and normal heptane (C₇H₁₆), when it produces the same knocking effect as the fuel under test. It is used to indicate the octane rating of a gasoline, describes the anti-knock properties of a fuel when used in an internal combustion engine. Knock is a secondary detonation that occurs after fuel ignition due to heat buildup in some other part of the combustion chamber. When the local temperature exceeds the auto ignition temperature, knock occurs.

Octane rating: A measure of the antiknock properties or engine knock resistance of a gasoline. The higher the octane rating, the more resistant the gasoline is to abnormal combustion.

Octane requirement: The fuel octane number needed for efficient operation (without knocking or spark retardation) of an internal combustion engine.

Odorization: A process of adding a distinctive odor to natural gas so that its presence can be easily detected.

Abstract

It has been established beyond doubt that the drainage architecture and the fluvial histories of river systems give excellent indications not only on the surficial lithology but also on the ongoing morphotectonic processes of the planet earth. Among the various drainage patterns, the ‘eyed drainage’ pattern is considered to be one of the most significant anomalies and such ‘mega eyed’ drainages interpreted from IRS-IA imagery in some of the major river systems in Tamil Nadu, Indian Peninsula, are found to signify ongoing tectonic movements in an otherwise seismically inert shield area.

The present study has been conducted in one of the agro-ecological zones of the state of West Bengal, New alluvial zone. Four villages from Haringhata block in Nadia district were selected from the new alluvial agro- ecological zone to conduct the study. One hundred farmers were selected from the villages of Dalilpur, Mitrapur, Fatehpur, 25 respondents from each. The primary data were collected with the help of structured interview schedule by following the personal interview method. The secondary data were collected from our departmental library, internet, Department of Agriculture, West Bengal, Bidhan Chandra krishi Viswavidyalaya, etc. for establishing the conceptual framework of the study.

24.1 Introduction

Water is a universal biological solvent and the medium in which most of the cellular reactions of metabolism occur. Fish contain a large amount of water in their cells and extracellular fluids. It is important to a fish that its water content be nearly constant. This more or less steady state of water content in the body can only be maintained when there is a quality difference between the amount of water entering and leaving the body. The process of regulating the movement of water and its volume in the body is known as osmoregulation.

4.1 Harvesting

Pomegranate being non-climacteric fruits should be picked when fully ripe. Its fruits become ready for picking 120-130 days after fruit set. Mature fruits should be immediately removed from the plants as delay in harvesting leads to fruit cracking. Fruits harvested at a premature stage have poor keeping quality and are prone to damage during handling and transport. The fruits are harvested when outer rind becomes yellowish and the fruit when tapped produces a metallic sound. The round fruits become flattened from all the sides and basal beak shaped portion shrinks at the time of maturity. Fruits are harvested with the help of secateurs by retaining 1 cm stalk with the fruit. All the fruits should be harvested in 2-3 pickings within a span of one month.

16.1 INTRODUCTION

Mulch, a technical term, means ‘covering of soil’. A mulch is a layer of material applied to the surface of soil. It may be applied to bare soil or around existing plants. Mulches of manure or compost will be incorporated naturally into the soil by the activity of worms and other organisms. Mulching is the process or practice of covering the soil/ground to make more favourable conditions for plant growth, development and efficient crop production. While natural mulches such as leaf, straw, dead leaves and compost have been used for centuries, during the last 60 years the advent of synthetic materials has altered the methods and benefits of mulching. The research as well as field data available on effect of synthetic mulches make a vast volume of useful literature. In this manner it plays a positive role in water conservation. The suppression of evaporation also has a supplementary effect; it prevents the rise of water containing salt, which is important in countries with high salt content water resources.

The aquaculture sector in India is expanding rapidly, playing a critical role in enhancing rural livelihoods, ensuring food security, and boosting export revenue. However, disease outbreaks remain a persistent hurdle, often leading to substantial financial losses for fish farmers. To mitigate this, the deployment of user-friendly, efficient, and rapid diagnostic tools at the field level has become increasingly vital—especially in areas with limited access to laboratory facilities.
Fish disease diagnostic kits, based on immunological and molecular technologies, are designed to detect specific pathogens responsible for viral, bacterial, parasitic, and fungal infections. A major benefit of these tools is their ability to deliver results swiftly—typically within minutes or hours—enabling prompt action. In India, research bodies such as ICAR-CIFA, ICAR-CIBA, and ICAR-NBFGR have played a key role in developing and adapting these tools for local aquaculture conditions.
Efficient nucleic acid extraction is a cornerstone of field diagnostics. Rapid DNA/RNA extraction kits that function without centrifuges and under varied environmental conditions have made sample processing quicker and easier. Mobile diagnostic vans—equipped with portable lab equipment—have also been introduced in states like Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu for on-site disease surveillance and farmer training.
For detecting parasites, wet mount kits containing preloaded reagents like iodine and saline are used for direct microscopic examination of fish tissues. These kits help identify parasites such as Trichodina, Ichthyophthirius, and monogeneans, aiding in immediate diagnosis and treatment advice.