eChapters

Value Addition in Livestock Product

Mankind has been utilizing different animal species from the dawn of civilization for a variety of purposes viz. production of milk, meat, wool, egg and leather etc. These products are either useful in raw form or in value added form. Value-addition describes economically adding value to the product by changing its place, time and form to characteristics that are more preferred in the market place. Another way of explaining is that what happens when you take a basic product and increase the value of that product, usually the price by adding extras in the manufacturing process, or by tacking on extra products and/or services.

The fungal exometabolome represents the collection of metabolites secreted by fungi into their surrounding extracellular environment. This chapter introduces the concept of the fungal exometabolome and distinguishes it from the intracellular endometabolome. It discusses the composition of extracellular metabolites, factors influencing their production, methods used for exometabolome analysis, and their biological functions. Fungal exometabolites can contribute to communication, nutrient acquisition, competition, host interactions, and environmental adaptation. The chapter also examines industrial and medical applications and the role of fungal exometabolomics in systems biology. Advantages, limitations, analytical challenges, and future perspectives are discussed to demonstrate the value of extracellular metabolite analysis in fungal research.

Introduction

Marigold is an important flower crop in India. They are extensively used for making garlands, beautification and other purposes i.e. oil extraction and therapeutic uses. Apart from these uses marigold is a widely grown plant in gardens and for pots. Marigolds are also grown commercially for extraction of carotene pigments mainly xanthophylls. The carotenoid extracted from petals are added to poultry feed for intensification of yellow colour of egg yolk. Lutein which is the major constituent of xanthophylls is used for colouring food stuffs.

Marigold plantation has been found beneficial to reduce the population of nematodes. Root-knot (Meloidogyne spp.) can be effectively managed in the field without pesticides.

Genetics

Marigold belongs to family Asteraceae. There are about 33 species of the genus Tagetes. Important species are T. erecta, T. patula, T. tenuifolia, T. lucida, T. lacera, T. lemmonii, T. minuta, T. pusilla and T. corymbosa. The chromosome number in diploid species i.e. T. erecta, T. tenuifolia, T. elongata, T. lemmonii, T. jaliscensis and T. lucida is 2n = 24, however, tetrapoid species i.e. T. patula, T. minuta, T. remotifolia, T. mendocina and T. biflora is 2n = 48.

Custard apple (Sitaphal) is one of the most delicious fruit. The genus name, ‘Annona’ is comes from the Latin word ‘anon’, which means ‘yearly produce’ has three species namely Annona squamosa, Annona cherimola and Annona reticulate. Out of which Annona squamosa has been extensively used as fruit crop and traditional medicine for different ailments. The seeds and the leaves also are being used for preparation of medicine. It is hardy, tolerant to drought, salinity and saline irrigation water to certain extent. It grows very well in shallow soil profile. It also sheds off leaves during stress condition to evade moisture loss from plant tissue through transpiration. This crop is known by varied name like sitaphal, shariffa and sugar apple.

Origin and Distribution

The custard apple is believed to be a native of the West Indies but it was carried in early times through Central America to southern Mexico. It has long been cultivated and naturalized as far south as Peru and Brazil. It is commonly grown in the Bahamas and occasionally in Bermuda and southern Florida. Apparently it was introduced into tropical Africa early in the 17th century and it is grown in South Africa as a dooryard fruit tree. In India the tree is cultivated, especially around Calcutta, and runs wild in many areas.

The concept of multiple dimensions of a sustainable agriculture is more broad which has to be viewed with awareness of potential technologies, fragile ecosystem and human interference to disrupt with limited resource availability. All these aspects have to be taken into account for proper understanding of sustainable agriculture.

The major aspects are,

1. Agriculture must be increasingly productive and efficient in resource use.
2. Biological processes within agriculture systems must be controlled from within (rather than by external inputs of pesticides) and
3. Nutrient cycles within the farm must be closed.

Within this frame work a sustainable model has to be developed. The proposed concept of sustainable agriculture which is best suited for developing and developed countries and is a viable model for the present and future is depicted schematically (Fig. 1).

In its purest form sustainable agriculture would be a complete reversion to subsistence agriculture relying on organic wastes and manures within farms without applying

Introduction

Among ornamental bulbous plants, tuberose occupies a very prominent position. Tuberose flower is much adored for its prettiness, elegance and fragrance. It is commercially grown as cut flower, loose flower as well as for its potential in perfume industry.

The flowers of tuberose are used for artistic garlands, floral ornamentals, bouquets and buttonholes. The long flower spikes are excellent as cut flowers for table decoration when arranged in vases.

Plants of tuberose can be used in landscapes, in all-white gardens or with other plants. Variegated varieties with golden or yellow striped leaves are very attractive and these varieties are suitable for garden beautification. Potted plants can be put in decorative containers and used for entranceways and interiors.

INTRODUCTION
Irrigation equipment plays a crucial role in modern agriculture, ensuring that crops receive an adequate supply of water for optimal growth. These systems have evolved over centuries to meet the growing demands of agricultural production, especially in regions where rainfall is inconsistent or insufficient. The construction of irrigation equipment involves various technologies designed to efficiently distribute water to the land, thereby supporting the health and yield of plants. Different types of irrigation equipment are used depending on factors such as the size of the farm, the type of crops being grown, and the availability of water sources. The most common types of irrigation systems include surface irrigation, sprinkler systems, and drip irrigation. Surface irrigation involves the flow of water across the soil’s surface, often through furrows or basins. Sprinkler systems simulate rainfall by spraying water in a controlled manner, while drip irrigation delivers water directly to the roots of plants through a network of tubes and emitters. Each of these systems is designed to optimize water usage, minimize waste, and increase agricultural efficiency. The function of irrigation equipment goes beyond merely supplying water; it is designed to do so in a way that prevents waterlogging, erosion, and evaporation loss. Properly constructed systems ensure uniform water distribution, reducing the chances of crop damage from over-irrigation or drought stress. In addition to providing water, modern irrigation technologies often incorporate automation and sensors, allowing farmers to monitor and adjust water usage based on realtime conditions. This precision farming approach maximizes resource efficiency, contributes to sustainable agriculture, and helps ensure a stable food supply in

The Begonia family has a tropical and subtropical distribution in America, Asia and Africa. With approximately 100 species and 10,000 cultivated hybrids, they are very important as ornamental plants.A few reports describe Begonia as edible; the highest number of these species is found in America, some in Asia, and we have only one report of an edible Begonia in Africa.

The Begonia family has a tropical and subtropical distribution in America, Asia and Africa. There are approximately 600 species in America, and the same number in Asia.

Africa, including Madagascar and the Mascarenes, has 158 reported species, one third of which are endemic to Madagascar and associated Isles (Mascarenes, Seychelles and Comoros). Only ones species, B. grandis Dryander, is widely distributed in temperate regions, extending northwards near Beijing (Forrest & Hollingsworth, 2003; Plana, 2003).

WATER IS VERY SPECIAL IN BIOLOGY

Most abundant chemical of life

Special properties:

The main objective of any cropping system is to utilize available resources efficiently viz., land, water, solar radiation by maintaining stability in production in order to obtain higher net returns. The efficiency is measured by the quantity of produce obtained per unit resource used in a given time. The objective of traditional agriculture was to increase the production by two means

1. By increasing area under cultivation
2. By increasing the productivity per unit area of the crop

But two more dimensions are added to modern agriculture

1. To increase the production per unit time
2. To increase the production per unit space

In the traditional cropping systems, mixtures and rotations were developed by the farmers over years of experience by trial and error to suit specific ecological and sociological conditions to attain yield stability, whereas modern scientific cropping has three pillars viz.

Introduction

The hot arid regions of India are spread over 32 million ha (0.32 million Sq.Km.) in the state of Rajasthan (61%), Gujarat (20%), Andhra Pradesh (7%), Punjab (5%), Haryana (4%), Karanataka (3%), and Maharashtra(0.4%) which are characterized by hostile agro-climatic conditions and fragile eco-system. Out of total hot arid area of the country (India), more than 60% area falls under the state of Rajasthan which covers 12 districts viz., Jaisalmer, Barmer, Bikaner, Churu, Sikar, Jhunhjunu, Naguar, Jodhpur, Pali, Jalor, Sriganganagar, and Hanumangarh of the state. In general, the hot arid region of Rajasthan receives very low rainfall, varies from 100 mm annun^-1in north-western district of Jaisalmer to 450 mm per annum in the eastern boundaries of arid district of Rajasthan. The potential evapo-transpiration varies from 2063 mm in Jaisalmer to 1503 mm in Sikar districts of Rajasthan. The rainfall is very erratic and often experienced prolong drought. The ground water table is very deep and often brackish in nature. The extremes of temperature having severe winter during December-January with temperature as low as -4 °C and very hot summer during May-June with temperature as high as 48-50 °C is another important characteristic of the hot arid regions. The solar radiation is very high. Atmospheric vapour pressure deficit reaches as high as 30 mb during summer (May-June). The wind velocity in June is very high which leads to heavy wind erosion and formation of sand dunes. Some time strong sand storms of very high speed (60-0 km h^-1) with huge amount of sand particles also occurs. The soils are coarse textured with low silt, clay and humus content and water holding capacity is very low and infiltration rate is very high. The soil fertility is very poor having low organic carbon (0.02-0.06%).

Protoplasts are cells which have had their cell wall removed, usually by digestion with enzymes. Cellulase enzymes digest the cellulose in plant cell walls while pectinase enzymes break down the pectin holding cells together. Once the cell wall has been removed the resulting protoplast is spherical in shape. Digestion is usually carried out after incubation in an osmoticum (a solution of higher concentration than the cell contents which causes the cells to plasmolyse). This makes the cell walls easier to digest. Debris is filtered and/or centrifuged out of the suspension and the protoplasts are then centrifuged to form a pellet. On resuspension the protoplasts can be cultured on media which induce cell division and differentiation.

Introduction

Women in India constitute nearly half of the population. They contribute 75% to the development of our society as compared to men who only 25%. According to the census 2011, nearly 98 million women in India have agriculture jobs, but around 66.1 million of them are depended on others’ farms as agriculture labours. They are engaged largely in cotton, tea, oil seeds and vegetable production. It is also worth mentioning that from the basic level of work concerning farm related activities to unskilled farm jobs like sowing, transplanting, weeding, harvesting and post harvesting activities like winnowing, processing, storage etc. women are engaged right from the start.

Woman’s contribution to the fisheries sector is 22% according to the FAO. Food security, horticulture, sericulture, livestock production and collection of non- timber forest are some of the allied sectors in which they are involved. They are also involved in other allied sectors which include cattle management, milk and poultry farming, and fodder collection. At the same time, women’s domestic activities include cooking, child rearing water collection from the nearby and far-off places, fuel wood gathering and the overall upkeep of household. Ironically, women face disparities in terms of compensation, their share in properties and in representation in local bodies. Much of their contribution in the food production system as food producers and providers has not received effective recognition. This affects their lives and familial conditions in terms of poor health of children and low educational attainments.

Ice bank cooling: Storing of fruit and vegetable in storage chamber with positive ventilation and system countries where ice formation is allowed during night time (as electricity cost of night is less as compared to the day time). Melting of ice occurs during day time and with proper air circulation by means of ventilation process, approximately 0.5 10C temperature with 90% RH in the chamber is maintained. Ice Bank Cooler / Air forced cooler leads to desiccation of the produce (Plate 359). So use forced air high humidity cooler and these are known as Ice Bank Cooler. Ice bank coolers are useful for strawberry.

Ice cream: Ice cream may be define as frozen dairy product made by suitable blending and processing of cream and other milk products together with sugar and flavour.

Ice cream cone: A thin crisp edible cone for holding ice cream and filled with ice cream.

Ice point: It is the temperature of equilibrium between ice and water under normal atmospheric pressure (Plate 360).

Ichthylogy: It is the branch of the zoology that deals with the study of fishes (Pisces).

Icicle: It is small tapering piece of the ice formed by freezing of dropping water (Plate 361).

The global food supply chain is a complex system that encompasses all stages of food production, processing, distribution, and consumption. This article provides an in-depth exploration of the journey food takes from farms to tables worldwide. It examines the various components of the supply chain, including agricultural production, food processing, logistics, retail, and consumption. The article also addresses key challenges such as food security, sustainability, and safety, and discusses the impact of globalization and technological advancements. Through case studies and examples, the article highlights the interconnected nature of the food supply chain and emphasizes the importance of cooperation among stakeholders to ensure a resilient and sustainable global food system.

Abstract: Crossandra, traditional flower crop of India, produce beautiful flowers in remarkable range of colours of almost all the year. Flowers are ideal for garland making and hair adornments. Only few species are cultivated across the world. Improvement is focused on drought tolerant ornamental types for landscape/ container use, better keeping quality, heavy yield and vivid range of flower colours, long spikes, earliness and big flower size. Breeders have created mutant cultivars and F₁ hybrids having valuable traits. Lack of fragrance and meager seed set require biotechnological interventions.

Developments in recombinant DNA technology have made it possible to transfer gene from any source across species barrier. In fact, transfer and expression of foreign genes in plant cells is now a routine procedure. Of the several methods tried so far, the system based on Ti plasmid of Aprobacterium tumefaciens appears to be most successful for transformation of plant cells.

10.1 Introduction

As one ofthe oldest and most widely used renewable energy sources, hydropower generates electricity by using the natural flow of flowing water. Streams and rivers have been used for producing mechanical energy for thousands of years. Hydroelectric power plants are located near or on water sources since they derive their power from flowing water. The amount of energy that can be released in moving water depends on the volume of the water flowing and the elevation change from one point to another, often called head. Generally, hydropower plants can produce more electricity when there is more water flow and a higher head.