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In India, jasmine is one of the oldest traditional flowers cultivated. It is infested by a number of insect and mite pests. The lepidopteran pests like bud borer, gallery worm, and leaf web-worm, are of significant importance. Sucking pests like eriophyid mite, lace wing bug, and thrips also causes minor damage to the crop. Dipteran pest like blossom midge also infests the crop. This chapter outlines brief descriptions of insect pests along with their hosts, life cycle, nature of damage, seasonal incidence and overall integrated pest management.
1. Bud worm: Hendecasis duplifascialis, Pyralidae, Lepidoptera
Budworm is an important pest of jasmine. Its damage ranged from 30 to 70 per cent, which had a significant impact on flower quality. The quality of opened flowers was affected by the silken tunnels and excretions created by budworm larvae inside the bud clusters (Gunasekaran, 1989 and Kamala and Kennedy, 2016).
The adult moths are small, pale white with wavy markings on wings and black patches on the wing margin. The moths lay eggs singly and glued on the unopened or immature buds, calyx and sometimes on the bud stalk, where the larvae eventually hatch and begin feeding.

Introduction
The digestive system is essential for the survival and overall health of all animals, and its proper function is crucial for the digestion, absorption, and metabolism of nutrients. In monogastric animals-those with a single-chambered stomach, such as dogs, cats, pigs, and horses-the digestive process is both complex and finely tuned to meet their specific nutritional needs. Understanding the clinical physiology of digestive disorders in monogastric animals is vital for veterinary professionals, animal caretakers, and researchers, as it enables them to recognize, iagnose, and treat various gastrointestinal conditions that may impact these 
species. This introduction provides an overview of the fundamental aspects of digestive physiology in monogastric animals, outlines common digestive disorders, and highlights the importance of this knowledge in clinical practice.
The digestive tract of monogastric animals consists of several organs that work together to break down food, absorb nutrients, and expel waste. The primary components include the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and associated glands such as the salivary glands, liver, and pancreas.
The digestive process begins in the mouth, where food is mechanically broken down by chewing and mixed with saliva, which contains enzymes like amylase to initiate the breakdown of carbohydrates. The bolus of food is then transported through the esophagus to the stomach via coordinated muscular contractions known as peristalsis. In the stomach, food is mixed with gastric secretions, including hydrochloric acid (HCl) and digestive enzymes like pepsin, which help break down proteins. The stomach’s acidic environment also plays a critical role in killing pathogens and aiding the digestion of certain nutrients, such as vitamin B12. The stomach of monogastric animals differs from that of ruminants, as it does not possess multiple compartments for fermentation but rather relies on enzymatic digestion.
The chyme (partially digested food) passes into the small intestine, where most digestion and nutrient absorption occur. The small intestine is composed of three segments-the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum-each with specialized functions. Enzymes secreted by the pancreas and bile from the liver facilitate the digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. The intestinal lining, with its villi and microvilli, maximizes the surface area for nutrient absorption.

Introduction

Climate change and climatic variability are expected to reduce agricultural productivity and threaten food security of the world, particularly in developing countries. Producing enough food for the increasing population in a background of decreasing resources and a changing climate scenario, is a challenging task. Agriculture, forestry and land use change account for about 30% of greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions. Therefore, mitigation of GHGs emission while enhancing production is another challenge in agriculture.
 
Conservation agriculture (CA), with the three core inter-linked principles of minimizing mechanical soil disturbance, enhancing organic matter cover on soil and diversification of crops, is a viable option for sustainable agriculture with an effective solution to climate change adaptation and mitigation. The principles can be integrated and applied into most of the rainfed and irrigated production systems including horticulture, agro-forestry, organic farming, rotational farming and integrated crop-livestock systems to strengthen ecological sustainability. Worldwide about 105 Mha land is under CA and the area is increasing. However countries like USA, Brazil, Argentina, Canada and Australia occupy about 90% of the area under CA. The CA, which is advocated as an alternative to the conventional production system for improving productivity and sustainability, is now adopted by many countries and agencies as a lead model for sustainable agricultural intensification.

I. WALL COMPONENTS – CHEMISTRY

The main ingredient in cell walls are polysaccharides (or complex carbohydrates or complex sugars) which are built from monosaccharides (or simple sugars). Eleven sugars are common in these polysaccharides including like glucose and galactose. Carbohydrates are good building blocks because they can produce a nearly infinite variety of structures. There are a variety of other components in the wall including protein, and lignin. Let’s look at these wall components in more detail:

A. Cellulose: β1,4-glucan (structure provided in class). Made of as many as 25,000 individual glucose molecules. Every other molecule (called residues) is “upside down”. Cellobiose (glucose-glucose disaccharide) is the basic building block. Cellulose readily forms hydrogen bonds with itself (intra-molecular H-bonds) and with other cellulose chains (inter-molecular H-bonds). A cellulose chain will form hydrogen bonds with about 36 other chains to yield a microfibril. This is somewhat analogous to the formation of a thick rope from thin fibers. Microfibrils are 5-12 nm wide and give the wall strength - they have a tensile strength equivalent to steel. Some regions of the microfibrils are highly crystalline while others are more “amorphous”.

Abstract

The Rawana landslide, located in Sirmuar district of the Shimla Himalayas, Himachal Pradesh is repeatedly active in the recent years. It is a NE-SW oriented slide with the crown in the southwest and the wider toe in the northeast resting in Giri River. During some of the sliding events emanations of heat and gases were also inferred. In order to understand the landslide phenomenon and the causative factors, and there from to evolve mitigation measures, detailed studies of the slides were under taken. The Landslide hazard zonation mapping carried out in Rawana landslide using LHEF rating based BIS method indicates that it is located in high hazard zone. The detailed studies show the complex geological, structural, morphotectonic and hydrological setting. From the studies it is surmised that the toe erosion by Giri river and the rainfall infiltration in the mid slope region are responsible for the slide. Remedial measures have been accordingly evolved.

1. Introduction

During the last decade, considerable attention has been focused on the involvement of oxygen free radical (OFR) in various diseases. Molecular oxygen, while providing an efficient energy from ingested food, results in free radical and peroxide by-products, which have high intrinsic toxicity. Numerous physiological processes in living organisms occasionally produce free radicals, reactive nitrogen species (RNS) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) as by-products. Their broad ranges of effects in biological systems have drawn the attention of many experimental works. ROS have been implicated in the pathophysiology of several clinical disorders, including ischemia, reperfusion injury, myocardial infarction, rheumatoid arthritis, neurodegenerative, atherosclerosis, acute hypertension, hemorrhagic shock and diabetes mellitus (Hemnani and Parihar, 1998).

Oxidative stress occurs in a cell or tissue when the concentration of reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated exceeds the antioxidant capability of the cell (Simic and Jovanovic, 1986). Although humans and other organisms possess antioxidant defense and repair systems to protect against oxidative damage, these systems are insufficient under certain conditions to prevent the damage totally (Chang and Miles, 1982). Hence, the oxygen free radicals mediated damage to protein, DNA and other biomolecules accumulates during the lifetime of organisms. Many synthetic antioxidant components exhibited toxic or mutagenic effects that have directed the attention to the naturally occurring antioxidants in recent years. A multitude of natural antioxidants have already been isolated from different plant materials such as oilseeds, cereal crops, vegetables, fruits, leaves, roots, spices and herbs (Ramarathnam et al., 1995).

Mangrove forests are ecologically significant and economically important (Kathiresan 2018). They provide ecosystem services worth at least US$ 1.6 billion each year and support coastal livelihoods worldwide (Costanza et al. 1997). They serve as the nursery, feeding and breeding grounds for crabs, prawns, molluscs, finfish, birds, reptiles and mammals. A large amount of global fish catches (up to 80%) is dependent on mangroves, thereby ensuring the food security of coastal people (Ellison 2008). The mangroves provide firewood, timber, cattle feed, honey, medicines and tourism development. They protect groundwater aquifers from seepage of seawater, thereby ensuring water security for coastal population. Mangrove forests remove coastal pollution particularly toxic heavy metals. They offer coastal protection against the fiery effects of natural calamities such as tsunami, storm surges, cyclone and floods (Kathiresan and Bingham 2001; Kathiresan and Qasim 2005; Kathiresan and Rajendran 2005). The potential of mangroves in carbon capture and sequestration is remarkable in mitigating the impacts of global warming and climate change (Kathiresan et al. 2013, 2014).

Apple (Malus domestica Borkh) is a typical temperate fruit; more than 80% world supply is being made from Europe (Tukey, 1982). It occupies more than 85% area and 60 % production of total temperate fruits. As per 2017-18 statistics it was cultivated over an area of 30,1000 ha with 23,27,000 metric tons production (Anonymous, 2018). Austria is leading in apple productivity; however, China is a largest producer in world.

Biostimulants examines substances and microorganisms that enhance plant physiological processes, growth, development, and tolerance to environmental stress. The chapter distinguishes non-microbial and microbial biostimulants and discusses plant extracts, protein hydrolysates, animal-derived hydrolysates, humic substances, seaweed and macroalgal extracts, and secondary metabolites. Microbial examples include nitrogen-fixing and nutrient-solubilizing organisms, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, Trichoderma, Bacillus, Pseudomonas, microalgae, and cyanobacteria. Their implications for germination, metabolism, root development, crop quality, growth promotion, and abiotic-stress tolerance are described. The chapter provides a framework for understanding biostimulants as complementary tools within sustainable crop production and natural farming systems. in modern sustainable crop production for farmers worldwide under diverse agricultural production conditions.

Since a method to cultivate VAM fungi in pure culture is not available as yet, clean and high quality VAM inoculum production is not possible. However, VAM technology is gradually getting a place in agriculture as well as reclamation and afforestation programmes. The inoculum currently being used includes infested fields soils, sievings from such soils, soil and roots of greenhouse plants, or pot culture inoculum derived from surface disinfected spores of a single VAM fungus on a host plant grown in a sterilized growth medium. Attempts are being made to manipulate VAM fungi, rooting media, hosts and fertilizers in order to secure superior quality of inoculum by these methods on a large scale. In addition, other techniques like tissue culture, hydroponic system etc. are also being attempted to cultivate VAM fungi in pure culture. The Indian mycorrhizasts have also attempted to devise and develop improved methods for production and storage of commercial VAM inoculum. The following description gives an account of Indian work related to production and storage of consistently high quality disease free VAM inoculum.

Silage fermentation is a complex process involving biochemical changes by microbial populations and the ensiling environment. The chemistry and microbiology of silage fermentation are linked, but the microorganisms are the dominant factor in the fermentation process, and they have the main influence on the quality of the end product. Many species of microorganisms are involved in the fermentation process, and their relative importance varies according to the prevailing conditions. As these conditions change during the fermentation process, the microorganism population changes accordingly. Lactic acid bacteria and clostridia are two main categories of microbes responsible for biochemical changes in silage.

Wilt

Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lentis

Economic Importance

• The disease is present in countries such as India, Jordan, Nepal, Pakistan, Syria, Turkey, Russia, France, Hungary, Ukraine, Egypt, Ethiopia, Morocco, Sudan, Tunisia, Canada, Argentina, Chile and Uruguay etc.
• It may cause 5-10% yield losses but sometimes severe damage may result complete crop failure under favorable conditions.

ABSTRACT

A plant grows in a highly competitive environment. It is continually being threatened by other plants encroaching upon the space from which it draws its sustenance, by microorganisms, by insects, avian, reptilian or mammalian herbivores. In order to survive, each plant must draw upon a complex of defenses, which may be physical, such as Spines or Leathery Leaves or Chemical. These defenses are passive, coming into action only when the plant is attacked which repel insects or the herbivores that attempt to feed on them. Plants protect themselves from insect attack by providing a multitude of repellent chemicals including toxic and bitter alkaloids and tannins. Non-specialist insects and other animals that attempt to feed on the plant may be repelled, injured through severe gastrointestinal malfunction or even killed. The cabbage, spinach, mustard etc. are well known for their mustard pungent flavor that deters most animals from consuming it. Even most medicinal plants like Cynanchum collialatum of the family Asclepediaceae have tannins or alkaloids like “cardenolides” that repel most animals and insects. All these plants have a basic enzyme “Myrosinase” which react with these specific tannins to produce the toxic metabolite, which repels insects and animals. But caterpillars of few insects are known to tolerate these toxic alkaloids (ex: caterpillar of Striped Tiger Butterfly-Danaus genutia) and in turn sequester the toxic alkaloids into their tissues making themselves non-palatable to their enemies. We hypothesize the analysis of possible roles of toxic alkaloids isolated from these butterflies as bio-insecticides

Nursery

Nursery is a place where seedling, saplings or any other planting materials are raised, propagated, multiplied and sold out for planting. The prerequisites of a successful and remunerative fruit production are the availability of true-to-type, healthy and good quality planting materials. Setting up of a fruit nursery is a long term venture and requires careful planning and expertise, because mistakes committed initially cannot be rectified easily and may adversely affect the return from the investment. Thus, one should pay due attention on every aspects when nursery is to be established.

3.1. Soil colloids

Clay fraction of the soil contains particles less than 0.002 mm in size.

Particles less than 0.001 mm size possess colloidal properties and are known as soil colloids.

Manures are the plant and animal wastes that are used as source of plant nutrients. They release nutrients upon their decomposition.

Bulky organic manures contain small percentage of nutrients and they are applied in large quantities. e.g,. farmyard manure, compost, green manures.

Scenario of Bioinputs reviews the broader market, production, consumption, and regulatory context surrounding bioinputs, with particular attention to biopesticides. The chapter discusses global availability and registration, major categories, market outlook, research needs, and industrial support. It then examines production infrastructure and consumption trends in India, including contributions from government organizations, agricultural institutions, private companies, and local laboratories. State-wise patterns and regulatory considerations are also addressed. By combining technical agriculture with market and institutional perspectives, the chapter helps readers understand the evolving bioinput sector, its production ecosystem, policy environment, commercialization potential, and opportunities for expanding sustainable crop-protection technologies. for stakeholders today.

• What is Intelligence?
• What is Artificial Intelligence?
• Branches of AI
• Natural–Language
• Natural Language Processing 
• Natural Language Recognition
• Simple Natural Language Grammar
• Intelligent Technologies in Agriculture
• Intelligent Animal Houses
• Agricultural Robots

Introduction

The area under salt-affected soils in India is estimated to be 6.73 Mha spread over a number of states across the country. This 6.73 million ha are lying barren or produce very uneconomical yields of crops due to excessive accumulation of salts. These soils are agriculturally unproductive because of the high content of soluble salts which had harmful effects on plant growth due to moisture stress and toxicity/deficiency of some of the ions and the exchangeable sodium ions in clay complex lead to the unfavorable physical conditions of for the plant growth and water movement (Bhumla 1977). Saline and sodic soils have excess concentration of either soluble or exchangeable sodium, calcium and magnesium primarily in the form of chlorides and sulphates. Salt affected areas an expected to increase with spread of waterlogging and salinity due to increase in canal irrigation, and intensive exploitation of poor quality ground waters for agriculture in non canal commands. Certain states like Rajasthan and Haryana located in the western part of the country are endowed with 84 and 62% of poor quality ground waters, respectively. Continuous use of such waters for irrigation to agricultural crops is bound to increase the problem of salinity and sodicity in India (Yadav 1989; Minhas and Bajwa 2001). Introduction of irrigation without making proper provision for drainage is the major cause for the development of salinity in canal commands.It is severe on irrigated lands of the dry zone. It reduces crop yield and in severe cases causes complete abandonment of agriculture (Joshi and Dhir 1989; Joshi et al. 2000; Mahesh Kumar et al. 2016). The present paper deals with extent, causes, characteristics and management options of these soils for sustainability of agriculture in the area.

Introduction

In India out of the total 142 million ha of arable land around 67 per cent of them are affected by some form of land degradation due to development of salinity/sodicity or acidification, erosion by water or wind or chemical contamination. Frequent use of tillage operation under conventional cultivation system particularly in rolling terrain is one of the major causes of land degradation through accelerated water and wind erosion. The basic purpose of primary tillage operations are to control weeds, increase the availability of nutrient to plant through accelerated mineralization of organic matter, and to keep the field clean and pulverized for ease of sowing of the next crop. However the bare and pulverized top soil made them vulnerable to accelerated soil loss through runoff and also to erosion loss of soil by wind in drier agro-climatic regions. Besides soil loss, conventional tillage operation breaks the soil aggregates and exposes the soil organic carbon locked inside the aggregates to accelerated microbial degradation and thus results in net loss of organic carbon from the arable ecosystem.