eChapters

Theory

ICT or Information and Communications Technology: The basket of technologies, which assist or support in storage, processing and dissemination/ communication of data/information. ICT thus includes technologies such as desktop and laptop computers, software and connection to the Internet that are intended to fulfil information processing and communication functions.

ICT Tools

    •    Word processing applications - used for preparing text documents.
    •     Presentation software - used for preparing presentations
    •     Spreadsheets - used for calculation and preparing tabular data with calculations
    •     Databases - used to store the information in the form of records and retrieving information using query mechanism.
    •    Multimedia – used to organize the information more meaningful manner with the help of text, images, animation, audio and videos
    •    Web browsers and E-mail – used to searching information and sending or receiving mail using Internet.

Theory

  The term ‘Management’ derived from word ‘manage’ derived from French word menage means ‘housekeeping’.

 According to Knootz and Weihrich 1988, ‘Management as the process of designing and maintaining an environment in which individuals, working together in groups, efficiently accomplish selected aims’. 

According to Louis E.Boone and David L.Kurtz ‘management as the use of people and other resources to accomplish objectives’.

POSDCORB is an acronym widely used in the field of Management and Public Administration., it first appeared in a 1937 staff paper by Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urwick. The acronym stands for steps in the administrative process: Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, Coordinating, Reporting and Budgeting.

Theory

Rural Development: The economic betterment of people as well as greater social transformation. The efforts for rural development comprises the direct and indirect involvement of people at the grass root level for development of agriculture/animal husbandry, industry, communication, education, health and allied sectors. 
Democratic Decentralization: To ensure people’s participation in rural development programmes, democratic decentralization has been the core principle of the government since 1957. In the process, people’s participation in all developmental activities has been the unique phenomena to find out the solutions of their problems.
Panchayat Raj: On the principle of democratic decentralization, Panchayat Raj institutions were launched in 1957 as per the recommendations of Balwant Rai Mehta Committee. Under this, the government has derived its authority from the people, and distribute to some extent to the people for decision and action at the local level called Panchayat Raj.

Theory

Extension Teaching Methods: Methods by using them new information can pass freely between the extension worker and rural communities. Extension education is mainly concerned with the dissemination of useful and practical information relating to rural life and helping the rural people in the practical application of such knowledge to rural situations. Extension teaching methods can be classified on the basis of:

Theory

Communication word comes from Latin ‘Communis’- Common
Communication: The communication is the process of human interaction in which one person communicates a message/idea to another person. 
Diffusion: It is the process by which an innovation/new idea/new technique spreads. 
According to Rogers (1983) ‘Communication is the process by which the message is transmitted from the source to the receiver’.

Theory

Research: The word research is composed of two words “Re” and “Search”.
“Re” - ‘Again or over again or a new’ 
“Search” - ‘To examine closely and carefully’ or ‘to test and try’. 
Research is a careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge undertaken to establish principles / policies. 
Science: It is a systematized knowledge derived through observation, experimentation or any other systematic method or procedure in order to determine the nature of phenomenon or process being studied or the causes behind specific events.

Theory
    ·    Father of sociology: Auguste Comte 
    ·    The term sociology was coined by Auguste Comte (1789-1875).
    ·    Sociology word comes from two roots i.e.     
        Latin word ‘socius’ meaning companion         
        Greek word ‘logos’ meaning speech or reasoning.
    ·    Sociology: Sociology is the scientific study of human social behavior and its origins, development, organizations, and institutions. It is a social science that uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about human social actions, social structure and functions.

Theory
The Constitution of India related to women:
    ·    Guarantees to all Indian women equality: Article 14
    ·    No discrimination by the State: Article 15(1)
    ·    Equality of opportunity: Article 16
    ·    Equal pay for equal work: Article 39(d)
    ·    Securing just and humane conditions of work and for maternity relief: Article 42
    ·    The All India Women’s Education Conference was held in Pune in 1927. 
    ·    The National Policy For the Empowerment of Women came was passed in 2001
    ·    In 2010 March 9, Rajya Sabha passed the Women’s Reservation Bill requiring that 33% of seats in India’s Parliament and state legislative bodies be reserved for women

THEORY
    ·    Father of Extension: James Stuart
    ·    Word Extension: Derived from Latin roots “ex”    - Out
                                                              tensio”    - Stretching
    ·    Extension term originated in England as University Extension in 1866.
    ·    The term Extension Education first used in 1873 by Cambridge University.
    ·    Philosophy of Extension (Kelsey and Hearne, 1967): How to think.
    ·    Binet test: Intelligence test (IQ).
    ·    Function of Extension: Change in Attitude, Skill and Knowledge of an individuals.
    ·    Extension Education Process:  Extension education is a participative and continuous process.
    ·    Learning Situation: It is a condition or environment in which all the elements necessary for promoting learning are present. 
    ·    Elements of effective learning situations in Extension are:

Biotechnological research started in early seventies with some impressive discoveries in the field of genetics, microbiology, biochemistry, biology and chemical bioengineering. The amalgamation of these sciences particularly integration of their basic principles and applied aspects gave rise to a new field, completely diverse and versatile in nature, what we call today ‘biotechnology’. Originating from research laboratories in universities, biotechnology rapidly captured the attention of industries as the number of its potential products increased. This newly developed frontier science later found broad application in medical science, pharmaceutical industry, agriculture, veterinary sciences and chemical industry for the welfare of mankind. Biotechnology by definition means ‘any technique that uses living organism or a part thereof to make or modify a product, to improve plant or animal or to develop microorganisms for specific purposes’.

Boost to crop production has been the ultimate goal of researchers involved in agriculture so as to feed the ever-increasing human and domestic herbivorous animal populations. Crop production is not only constrained by the limited inherent potential of available varieties currently in use, but is also largely affected by the limitations of soil nutrient availability and damages by diseases, insects and weeds. To counter later challenges, augmentation of soil nutrients through use of biofertilizers in integrated nutrient management programmes and restricting the use of chemical pesticide by integrating biopesticides in plant protection programmes has received much attention in recent years because of consumer’s preference for organic food.

In agricultural practices pesticide application is an inevitable factor for maintaining high crop productivity and is currently an integral part of modern farming. Pests (insects, microbes and weeds) cause approximately 20-30% loss in crop production so making pesticide use indispensable for crop protection.
 
Pesticide : A pesticide may be defined as ‘any agent or chemical or a mixture of chemicals/ substances intended to prevent, destroy, repel or irritate one or more pest populations causing economic loss in crop production’. Worldwide more than 450 active pesticide chemicals formulated into more than 10,000 commercial products are currently used by farmers. The most worrying aspect is that about two-third of the 800 chemicals tested so far have been found involved in causing or promoting tumor in rodents. Yet more than 50,000 synthetic chemicals/formulations remain untested so far.

The soil microorganisms thrive on organic matter in soil by feeding readily on soluble substrates and rather slowly on insoluble substrates. Organisms derive carbon and energy during the process of organic matter decomposition and release organically-bound carbon, thereby decrease C :N ratio and utilize nutrients. Any decrease in organic matter content in soil is likely to affect the microbial biomass and their activities thereby influence the soil fertility and productivity. It is, therefore, imperative to recycle the organic matter in soil in whatsoever form it may be. The raw organic matter requires appropriate treatment to boost decomposition process.

Soil is inhabited by incredibly diverse living microorganisms that are significant to plant growth and development. Soil microorganisms produce a variety of metabolites, probably several thousands, which influence the plant growth either positively or negatively. Therefore, in such a complex situation, identification of any one metabolite or a compound as active phytohormone or phytotoxin is really an uphill task. Appropriate extraction procedure, knowledge about the proper site for its action, appropriate conducive physiological environment and the effective intensity or concentration is of prime importance. Compounds, in general, are inhibitory to growth at higher concentrations but usually stimulatory at lower concentrations. All growth regulators, irrespective of their provenance or structure, may be divided into two groups.

Soil is a living entity having dynamic physico-chemical and biological properties. Besides supporting the growth of various biological communities, it also serves as a medium on which the organic residues, in the form of dead plant and animal or their excretions, are degraded and decomposed. The biological properties to soil are endowed through the interactive activities of plant root, soil microbes and soil animals. The soil organisms live in a constant state of competition and have to struggle hard for their survival. In this struggle some species become dominant and some remain sub-dominant and others perish or remain in very low profile. So a sort of dynamic equilibrium is the net result of wide range of interactions occurring both at organism and population levels amongst different components of soil biota. Many interactions are short-lived and sporadic and others are more stable.

Mycorrhizae denote the symbiotic associations between plant roots and fungal mycelia. Literally it means fungal root. In 1840, Vittandini proposed that ‘tree rootlets are nourished by certain fungal mycelia which mantle them’. The first illustrations of mycorrhiza were published in the same year by Robert Hartig. However, in 1885 A.B. Frank coined the term “mykorrhizen” to the mutualistic symbiotic fungal association of roots (‘mykos’ fungus ‘rhizen’ roots). He characterized the sheath-forming fungi on tree as ‘ectotropisch’ (ectotrophic) and those without such compact sheath as ‘endotropisch’ (endotrophic). Fossil records reveal that mycorrhizae are as old as terrestrial plants.

Soil microorganisms immobilize and mineralize various elements to satisfy their growth requirements. The subsequent turnover of microbial biomass also releases several mineral elements. The elements may be released as a result of organic matter decomposition (e.g. during the process of mineralization, ammonification, etc.) or through biological weathering. Other transformations may involve oxidation and reduction of various inorganic ions and compounds which are mostly catalyzed by chemoautotrophic bacteria during oxidation of ammonium, nitrite, sulphur, iron, etc. Such oxidations may also release energy for microbial growth.

Sulphur in nature follows similar cycle as that of nitrogen and shares many common features with it. In soils, decomposition of organic matter releases major portion of nitrogen and sulphur bound in proteins, as cystine or methionine amino acids, or vitamins, etc. In proteins, on an average, for every 36 atoms of nitrogen one atom of sulphur is present. Mineralization supplies a large fraction of nitrogen and sulphur to the plants. Secondly, both nitrogen and sulphur have several chemical forms under different soil conditions (Table 8.1) and both are subject to microbial reduction. Thirdly, both can enter or leave soil in gaseous form and both are subject to some degree of leaching in the anionic form.

Phosphorus, an essential element, plays a central role in cell metabolism and reproduction. It is a structural component of energy transferring molecules (ATP, ADP and AMP), nucleic acids, coenzymes, phosphoproteins, phospholipids and sugar phosphates. In soils, the phosphorus does not occur as abundantly as nitrogen or potassium. The total phosphorus in an average arable soil is estimated to be about 0.05% (by weight) with an average of approximately 1100 kg P ha-1 (range 200-2000 kg P ha^-1). But only a meager proportion (only ~0.1-1.0%) of it is available for use by plants and microorganisms because phosphorus has poor solubility and gets fixed in soil. Not only the native inorganic phosphates but even the added soluble phosphates of fertilizers and manure readily combine with the cations present in soil solution to form low solubility products. Fixation reactions in soils allow only a small fraction (10-15%) of phosphorus fertilizer to be taken up by the plants in the year of its application.

Nitrogen ranks fourth element in cell composition after C, H and O. It forms main components of amino acids, the building blocks of peptides and proteins. Besides, it is present in the genetic material of cell as well as in the chlorophyll and cell wall in the form of chitin and mucopeptides. Plant growth in soil is often limited by less supply of nitrogen, therefore a major nutrient limiting factor in crop production. About 26 x 10⁶ Mg N is globally applied to soil each year to enhance crop productivity.

Soil microorganisms in true sense are one of natural safety valves that regulate biogeochemical transformations in soil ecosystem. They act as natural agents for the disposal of organic matter. The various essential biological elements such as C, N, S and P, apart from H and O, form the primary building blocks of cells and their constituent elements are recycled through tiny microorganisms present in soil. More they are in quality and quantity, better recycling is expected by them. The organically bound materials are converted to simpler inorganic forms to complete biological cycle initiated during photosynthesis and other anabolic processes.

The study of soil microorganisms involves various complicacies when compared with those of plants or animals aboveground. The complicated heterogeneous environment existing in soil and the varied growth behaviour of microbial populations in soil have necessitated the development of special techniques to study the microbes and their metabolic diversity, individually and holistically without disturbing their natural habitat. With the gradual improvement in microscopy since its discovery in 1667 and also with the greater understanding of the nature of soil microbes and their properties in relation to total ecosystem function, the concept of studying microbes in isolation has enormously changed. Microscopes have helped in magnifying these, otherwise invisible, minute creatures within the limits of naked eyes.

Soil is the outer loose layer of earth consisting of layers of mineral material (regolith) whose properties differ from one another and these differences are largely due to the variation in biological activities. Soil micro-environment principally comprizes of inorganic particulates (sand, silt and clay) plus certain oxides and hydroxides, plant roots, organic matter, microbial biomass and aqueous and gaseous phases. The uneven distribution of these components provides a great variety of conditions from field to micropores. The interaction of physical and chemical factors contributes to the creation of varied soil habitat and hence determines the composition and activity of soil biota at a particular site and time. Over geological times, microorganisms have had great opportunity to become distributed worldwide. Such growth and development of microorganisms as well as species diversity is of considerable significance. The existing geographic distribution is reflective of long term adaptation of microorganisms to the various environmental conditions. The preferred environment of an organism is usually referred as ‘habitat’.

The plant roots, soil animals and microorganisms make up soil biological communities, accelerate biochemical activities through intra- and extra-cellular enzymes and interact in such a manner that biogeochemical cycling on this earth continues uninterrupted. Without intermeshing vital processes of soil microflora, microfauna and associated mesofauna, the soil would have become a repository of plant residues and animal remains with no facility for recycling the vital nutrients for plant growth, thus halting the whole process of geo-chemical recycling in nature. Though living component rarely makes up more than 4% of the total soil organic carbon, it plays vital role in geochemical recycling, soil development and ecosystem stability.

Definition : Soil microbiology is the study of microorganisms living in soil which complete whole or some part of their life cycle in soil. They include both beneficial as well as deleterious microorganisms but as a specialized branch main thrust is laid on their metabolic activities and the role they play in energy flow, cycling of nutrients associated with the primary productivity and soil ecosystem development. Besides, it focuses on environmental impact, whether favourable or unfavourable, on soil microorganisms and the various soil biochemical processes mediated by various microbes. A clear understanding of the interactions between soil microbial communities and elemental soil components is imperative to comprehend total ecosystem function. Atlas and Bartha have defined the soil microbiology as ‘the study of organisms that live in soil; their metabolic activity; their roles in energy flow; their roles in nutrient cycling’. As per Tate soil microbiology involves ‘the study of soil ecosystem which is the product of intricate interactions between physical and chemical matrix of highly variable composition and living communities of all form’.

Cancer cryosurgery began in England during 1850s, when James Arnott used local application of salt solutions containing crushed ice to treat advanced cancers in accessible sites, such as breast and the uterine cervix. Since then, landmark advances in chemistry, physics, material science, and biology have culminated in the sophisticated cryosurgical devices currently in use.
 
Cryosurgery is defined as a method that uses the local application of extreme cold to destroy abnormal or diseased tissue, with the possibility of the maintenance of normal adjacent tissue. Normal tissue can be maintained because the extension of the ice ball can be controlled. Tissue temperature should reach -20^o C or below. Attempts should be taken to kill all tissues in the target with minimal damage to surrounding tissues. There is a variable response of tissues to cryotherapy based on density, vascularity and the water content of the tissue, temperature and size of the cryoprobe, spray rate, rate of freeze, rate of thaw and number of freeze and thaw cycles. It is ideal to have quick freeze and slow thaw for maximum benefit. The extent of freezing should be closely monitored, with either temperature monitoring probes or by visual inspection and palpation of frozen area and this is more advantageous in case of relatively small lesions.

Canine transmissible venereal tumours (CTVT) is also known as infectious sarcoma, transmissible venereal tumours (TVT), venereal granuloma (VG), canine transmissible venereal sarcoma (CTVS), transmissible lymphosarcoma or Sticker tumour, is a benign reticuloendothelial tumour of the dog that mainly affects the external genitalia and occasionally the internal. As it is usually transmitted during coitus it mainly occurs in young, sexually mature animal. Canine transmissible venereal tumour is histocytic tumours that may be transmitted among dogs through coitus, licking, biting and sniffing tumour affected areas. CTVT is spread by the transfer of living cells between dogs, usually during mating. The tumour cells are themselves the infectious agents, and the tumours that form are not genetically related to the host dog (Purohit, 2008; wikipedia ctvt).

Cancer is a leading cause of death in both humans and canines. Mammary tumours are most common tumours in canines next to skin tumours. These are common in intact female pertaining to its relation to imbalances in estrogen and progesterone. This study is carried out on 18 client-owned dogs presented to the Institute referral veterinary polyclinics with the history of spontaneous mammary tumours. The animals are randomly divided into three groups viz., groups I, II and III each consisting of six animals.

Surgery stands as first choice for the treatment of canine mammary tumours. The simplest surgical procedure in the mammary gland should be performed (MacEwen, 1989) in the absence of metastatic disease and inflammatory carcinoma. Nevertheless the controversy for performing simple or radical technique still goes unabated, as the published data are to clear to prove the practical value of radical surgery compared to simple mastectomy. Brodey et al. (1983) is reported that six categories of surgical excision of mammary tumours can be performed.

In the modern industrialized world, cancer has become the most feared of all diseases. Cancer has gained considerable relevance in animals now-a-days owing to the increased awareness among people towards animal sufferings and pain. The diagnosis and management of neoplasm, therefore, represent the major challenges faced by a veterinary oncologist. With the emergence of multitude of interdisciplinary and subspecialty fields of cancer science like tumour biology, cancer chemotherapeutics, immuno-pathology etc, different managemental modalities like excisional surgery, chemotherapy and immunotherapy have evolved. These therapies either alone or in combination make all neoplasm patients to have an improved quality and quantity of life if not always cures. The quality of life of the animal should always be prioritized.

Tumours of mammary gland are the second most common tumours of female dog representing approximately 30-50% of all tumours. Chemotherapy is a kind of treatment that uses drugs to attack cancer cells. The importance of chemotherapy has been emphasized and reported that survival could be prolonged after chemotherapy in cancer patients. Clinical trials of the combination of selective COX-2 inhibitors with chemotherapy in patients with a number of cancers have been initiated and preliminary results are encouraging. The introduction of immunohistochemistry and newer techniques like nucleolar organizer region (NOR) staining have improved the objective of diagnosis of cancer. Silver stained nucleolar organizer region (AgNOR) count is considered to be valuable prognostic marker for canine malignant lymphomas and other canine tumour. This study is designed to investigate the therapeutic efficacy of chemotherapeutic agent-Methotrexate with or without COX-2 inhibitors-Meloxicam and also to study the potential clinical application of nucleolar organizer regions (NORs) as prognostic indication in canine mammary tumours.

Tumours of mammary gland are the most common tumours of female dog representing approximately 30-50% of all tumours in bitch. Chemotherapy is a kind of treatment that uses drugs to attack cancer cells. The importance of chemotherapy has been emphasized that survival could be prolonged after chemotherapy in cancer patients.

Considering immunosuppressive nature of mammary tumours, the use of immunotherapy to prevent cyto-toxicity of cancer drugs, further metastasis and prolong survival period in canines. “ImmuPlus” (Indian Herbs) is a type of polyherbal ayurvedic product containing extracts of Ocimum sanctum, Withania somnifera, Emblica officinale and Tinospora cordifolia.

Cancer, according to current opinion, is a multitude of different diseases and is no more a “one disease’. Myriads of tumour types and plethora of their patho-physiology in different species necessitates species wise study of tumours in detail. Of all species, dog develops neoplasms twice as frequently as humans, with incidence of skin and mammary tumours being the highest. Tumors of mammary gland are the most common tumors of female dog representing approximately 30-50% of all tumors in bitch and it is the second most common tumour in dog after skin neoplasms and most common malignant tumour in dog.

Radiographic examination of mammary tumour patients should be done prior to any treatment to detect the chances of lung metastasis. Radiographs of the thorax helped to provide information pertaining to the extent of organs involved and the presence of metastasis in the lungs. Lateral radiograph of thorax revealed absence of pulmonary metastasis in normal cases. Lung metastasis may observe in animal characterized by radioopaque soft tissue scattered in the lungs indicating pulmonary metastasis.

Depressed immune responses have been observed frequently in cancer patients. Cancer and other stress are known to affect different components of the immune system. Cancer treatment is relying mainly on surgery, anti-cancer chemotherapy and radiation therapy. Most chemotherapeutic agents are responsible to myeloid toxicity, which leads to leukemia and immunosuppression affecting both humoral and cell-mediated immunity. This is a very serious disadvantage of chemotherapy besides they are cytotoxic drugs.

Sex hormone plays a vital role in the occurrence of canine mammary cancer. It is well established that canine mammary cancer is sex-hormone dependent. The risk of developing canine mammary tumour is 0.05% if the dog is spayed before its first estrous and the risk of developing a mammary cancer is increased as the number of estrous cycle increases. Mammary cancer is often hormone responsive, since growth or regression of tumours can be modulated by suitable hormonal manipulations. Estrogen and Progesterone appear to be major hormones in regulation of mammary tumour development. It is also reported that about 40-50% malignant mammary tumour in the dog have either or both estrogen and progesterone receptors. Benign tumours in dogs have also female sex hormone receptors and they can be stimulated by hormonal cycling. Mammary carcinoma can be induced in male and female rodents by administration of estrogen. Transsexual males given high doses of estrogen to induce mammary development have developed mammary cancer. So measurement of different sex hormones or sex steroids is an essential step during any study related to development and efficacy of treatment of canine mammary cancer.

MMPs are a family of zinc-containing, calcium-dependent endopeptidases secreted by various cell types and implicated in a wide range of physiological events (e.g. trophoblast invasion, development, endometrial remodeling, ovulation, angiogenesis, wound healing, bone resorption and cell migration) as well as in pathological processes. Matrix metalloproteinase (MMPs) and their tissue inhibitors (timps) have been strongly implicated in the pathogenesis of many types of human cancer. Expression levels for the most relevant MMPS are confirmed by reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). The activities of MMPs are significantly higher in malignant tissues than benign canine tumours.

Mammary tumours are the most frequent neoplasia in female dogs; therefore, these tumours represent a serious problem in veterinary medicine. Many tumours presented activated genes which are not normally expressed in the tissue from which they originate. The proteins derived from the expression of these genes are called tumour markers. Detection and measurement of these proteins are used in medicine for diagnosis and assessing the evolution of the tumours.

Mammary tumours arise from the ducts are called as ductal or ductular carcinoma. Some include other tissues such as the myoepithelium and connective tissue between the glands. These have a number of different names including carcinosarcoma, carcinoma or sarcoma in benign tumour, complex adenocarcinoma and malignant mixed tumour. Tumours are also classified by the type of epithelial growth because this influences the probability of recurrence. Tumours that only have myoepithelium or connective tissue are called sarcomas.

Microsatellites are highly polymorphic repetitive DNA sequences that are randomly distributed throughout eukaryotic genomes displaying high levels of variation and consequently, are ideal for deciphering genetic variability. They are having high mutation rates (1-4 per generation). Among the microsatellite, (CA) n repeats occurring about one in every 30 kb of mammalian genome constitute useful genetic markers, as their polymorphism is sufficiently stable and their mutation rate are low enough. Out of innumerable microsatellite, ZuBeCa3 microsatellite shows huge variability in the canine genome (Switonski and others 1998). This microsatellite is located in chromosome 9q21-q22 and vastly studied in different dog breeds depicting its heterogeneous distribution over the chromosome (Switonski and others 1998).

Cancer has gained considerable relevance in companion animals nowadays owing to the increased awareness among the people towards animal sufferings and pain. A proper diagnosis augments a better treatment regime for the suffering animal. Of all species, dog develops cancer twice as frequently as humans. Mammary tumours rank second (behind skin tumors) as the most common neoplasm in dogs but constituting more than 50% tumours in bitches. All suspected growths therefore requires careful appraisal lest it be cancerous. Diagnosis of cancer represents one of the major challenges faced by the small animal veterinarian. In majority of instances, the differentiation of a benign from the malignant tumour can be made morphologically with considerable certainty and for the same, histopathological examination remains the gold standard. A proper histopathological diagnosis however depends a lot on the collection, fixation and processing of tissues. So clinician as well as histopathologist has their own role to play in the final diagnosis of cancer in animals.

Cancer has gained considerable relevance in animals now-a-days owing to the increased awareness among people towards animal sufferings and pain. The diagnosis and management of neoplasm, therefore, represent the major challenges faced by a veterinary oncologist. Mammary gland tumours are among the most common canine neoplasm, but the vast majority of these tumours occur in intact female dogs. In canines, mammary gland tumours that occur in males ranges from 0-2.7% (average < 1%). Sex hormones plays a vital role for the occurrence of mammary gland tumours. The p53 gene over expression is an independent factor for indicator of worse prognosis in canine mammary gland tumours. The p53 may be useful prognostic markers for evaluating malignancy in canine mammary gland tumours. There is a strong positive correlation between expression of cyclooxygenase-2 (Cox-2) and grade of malignancy in the tumours. Increased Cox-2 expressions are linearly related in the canine mammary gland tumours and are also related to worse prognosis and shorter overall survival. Canine mammary gland malignant tumours have the highest values of Cox-2 expression. Matrix metalloproteinase (MMPs) are a family of zinc and calcium-dependent proteolytic enzymes that degrade macromolecules of the extracellular matrix. Members of this family such as MMP-2, -9 and -7 have been shown to be associated with tumour progression and invasion in human cancer tissues. Matrilysin (MMP-7) influence the early stage of tumourogenesis.

The breeds of animals are utilized for this study includes Spitz (12), German shepherd (7), Non descript (5), Doberman (2), Rottweiler (1), Labrador (1) and Pomeranian (2) (Total 30 clinical cases of CMT). The animals are weighed between seven to thirty nine kilograms. There are twenty three cases of non spayed and seven cases of spayed dogs. Out of thirty clinical cases of mammary tumour presented, 10 cases (33.33%) have multiple growths, and 20 cases (66.67 %) have solitary growths, pedunculated growth are 12, remaining eighteen growths are sessile. Ulcerated and inflamed are 36.67 % (11/30), and non infected are 63.33% (20/30).The surface of tumour is nodular in eight cases (4.18). Recurrence are recorded in 4 (13.33%) cases whereas, first time occurrence are 26 (86.67%).

Cancer remains a challenge because of its incurability and fatality.  Cancer is one of the leading causes of death in companion animals such as dogs and cats and is particularly common in animals that live 10 years or longer. Of all species, dogs develop neoplasm twice as frequently as humans, with incidence of skin and mammary tumours being the highest.

Data on incidence rates are relatively new development in the veterinary medicine. One of the major sources of various dog neoplasm incidence rates has been a population based animal tumour registry. Though, majority of epidemiological studies have been reported from various countries, in India knowledge about epidemiology of canine neoplasm is scant.

Canine mammary gland tumours are the most common type of tumour in the intact female dog. Of all species, dog develops neoplasm twice as frequently as humans, with incidence of skin and mammary tumours being the highest. Tumours of mammary gland are the most common tumours of female dog representing approximately 30-50% of all tumours in bitch and it is the second most common tumour in dog after skin neoplasm and most common malignant tumour in dog.

Defination

Mammary gland tumours arise primarily in the female animal from secretary epithelial, myoepithelial, or, less frequently, mesenchymal elements of mammary tissue.

A tumour/neoplasm is caused by a purposeless multiplication of living cells. The word neoplasm means new growth. Tumours are common in carnivore as compared to other animals. Horse and cattle are mostly affected than sheep, pig and goats. Old animals are affected more commonly than young ones. Cancer, according to current opinion, is a multitude of different diseases and is no more a “one diseases’. Myriads of tumour types and plethora of their patho-physiology in different species necessitates species wise study of tumours in detail.  Of all species, dog develops cancer twice as frequently as humans. Mammary tumours rank second (behind skin tumours) as the most common neoplasm in dogs and constituting more than 50% tumours in bitches.

22.1 Introduction

Nanotechnology has proved to have infinite potential in increasing the quality of life of the human population. There is however, a growing realization regarding the potential health and safety risks of associated with development, production and application of these nanoparticles. Nanoscale particles are produced from a variety of different processes. Nanoparticles are the end product of a wide variety of physical, chemical and biological processes, some of which are novel and radically different, others of which are quite commonplace. Nanometer sized particles are also found in the atmosphere where they originate from combustion sources (traffic, forest fires), volcanic activity, and from atmospheric gas to particle conversion processes such as photochemically driven nucleation. A large quantity of nanoscale particles are also produced during the various human activities, Welding can generate large quantities of nanoparticles usually in the form of a well defined plume of aggregated nanoparticles.

21.1 Introduction

Nanotechnology is an emerging field of science which is being highly exploited in the sphere of medicine where “nano” plays a vital role in delivery of drugs or chemical molecules to the point it is required in précised quantities in right proportions. Nanoscience infuses intelligence to the truck load of chemical constituents that are to be delivered at appropriate locations and cleave from the site after the task is complete. Such process will likely to reduce the cost besides ensuring environmental safety. Nanoscale devices with its unique properties make the agricultural system more smart and effective; such devices are capable of responding to different situations by themselves, thus taking appropriate remedial action with the need of external directions from humans. In short, these devices act as a detectors and if need arises serve as a solution/remedy for the particular issue. These smart delivery systems of chemicals in controlled and targeted manner can be considered synonymous to the proposed nano-drug delivery system in human (Patolsky et al., 2006). 

20.1 Introduction
  
Fertilizers play an important role in improving soil fertility and productivity of crops regardless of nature of cropping sequence or environmental conditions. It has been unequivocally demonstrated that one third of crop productivity is dictated by fertilizers besides influencing use efficiencies of other agri-inputs. In the past four decades, nutrient use efficiency (NUE) of crops had hardly exceeded 35-50%, 18-20% and 30-35 % for N, P and K, respectively, despite our relentless efforts. The remaining nutrients stay in soil or enter into the aquatic environment causing eutrophication. In addition to the low nutrient efficiencies, Indian agriculture is facing a problem of low organic matter, imbalanced fertilization and low fertilizer response that eventually caused crop yield stagnation (Biswas and sharma, 2008).The fertilizer response ratio in the irrigated areas of the country  has dcreased from 13.4 kg grain / kg nutrient applied in 1970’s to just 3.7 kg in 2005. In other words, more amounts of fertilizers is required to produce the same quantity of grain output. For instance, 27 kg NPK ha-1 was required to produce one tonne of grain in 1970 while the same level of production can be achieved by 109 kg NPK ha-1 in 2008. 

19.1 Introduction

Nano technology or Nano Science is a new branch of research though nano materials or Nano Structures are not new. In nature nano particles or nano materials are abundant .The idea of manipulation, production, controlling size and physico - chemical properties and application as well as making devices out of these nano materials is the subject of Nano Science & Nano Technology. As the name suggests, the domain of Nano starts from 10-9 m but especially the effect of nano structures exists mostly in the 1-100 nm regime where quantum - mechanical behiviour is prevalent. Molecules with more than 10 atoms fall into the nanometer range  and scientists were not able to visualize individual molecules and nano scale objects until the invention of some very powerful microscopes. Working in Nano domain requires two basic facilities -