eChapters

SWOT analysis is the systematic identification of the internal strength and weakness of an organization or enterprise and environmental opportunities and threats. The analysis is based on the assumption that effective strategy maximizes strength and opportunities and simultaneously minimizes its weakness and threats. Entrepreneurial activities require a SWOT before initiation to provide first hand information about feasibility of the enterprise. All SHGs in rural sector are formed for income generation. A variety of enterprises coming up through SHG in rural sector may or may not be successful. SWOT provides basic direction for entrepreneurship at any level for benefit of the practitioners. The SWOT of SHG in tribal area where study was conducted has been analyzed.

The problems of SHG are many and diversified. The problems vary from place to place and SHG to SHG. Then problems cluster is in relation to economic productivity, overall welfare and livelihood. As we observe since five decades after independence, resistance of people in the state of social, economic, political disempowerment is considered to measure hindrance to overall development. The SHG being a part of society is not an exception to be cited with problem. During investigation the constraints experienced by SHGs members are categorized under five areas namely personal, social, economical, technological and marketing problem. These problem directly and indirectly affects the performance of SHGs. The evidences of past studies and experience in the present context reveal a wide variation in the dimension of the problem.

Family No. 1

Name and address:

Smt. Jamuna Khajuriputia

Age - 45 years, Caste - ST

Village – Rajbadei

Block – Similiguda, Koraput

Family size: A total of five members, husband Gopinath (50 years), the son Ramesh and Podu, daughter-in-law Dana and herself. Male : Female ratio is 3:2

Educational status: All members have education except daughter-in-law, Dana. The status score is 4.16 in 10 point scale.

Apple is a king of temperate fruit, symbol of health and premier fruit of the world. It is a deciduous temperate fruit tree and most widely grown in the world from time immemorial. In India, a large number of apple varieties were introduced in 1887 by Mr. Alexander Coutts, and his orchard is called Hillock Head in Mashobra near to Shimla. It was also introduced in Nilgoris and Bangalore, but it was destroyed by wooly aphid in 1887. At present a small cultivation is done in Nilgiris. Among the fruits, apple is having longest storage life. Apples are mostly consumed as fresh but a small part of the production is processed into juices, jellies, canned slices, wine and other products.

Origin and Distribution

An apple is originated in the Middle East/Central Asia more than 4000 years ago where its wild ancestor, Malus sieversii, is still found today. It is spreading across Europe to France; the fruit arrived in England during the time of Norman Conquest in 1066. The pioneer apple orchard in the North American continent was planted in Boston by Reverend William Blaxton in 1625. The Only North America native apples are called crab apples or common apples.

Captain R C Scot of the British army had introduced apples like Newton Pippin, King of Pippin and the Cox Orange Pippin to the Kullu valley in 1870. These apples were not popular because of their sour taste. The sweet apples were still being imported from Japan to meet the demand of Indian market. It was during a visit to America in 1915 that Samuel Stokes bought a few saplings and planted them at his Barobagh orchard in Thanedar and in the year 1926 the first apple trees bear fruit and the apples was sold and imports from Japan is stopped. The first few saplings from its, Golden Delicious of Kinnaur and Sweet Delicious of Shimla were became popular and Himachal Pradesh grew to become one of the largest producers of the fruit today. Therefore, the Himachal Pradesh is known as apple bowl of India.

Pear (Pyrus communis) is one of the most important fruit crops of temperate regions of the world. It is the second temperate fruit tree crop in terms of importance, area, production after apple in India. Pear belongs to the Rosaceae family which have been cultivated in Europe and in Asia for more than 3000 years. Their fruit are tasty with pleasant flavor and commonly eaten fresh or is canned. It is used to produce perry, an alcoholic beverage. Pears are grown under temperate and subtropical climatic conditions of India because of its wider climatic and soil adaptability. It is primarily grown in hills at 1700–2400 m above mean sea-level in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. Low-chilling pears have adapted very well in the subtropical regions of our country. Improved pear cultivars were introduced in 19^th century and cultivation started due the success of Barlett and Gola in hills and patharnakh in Punjab of our country. European/common/soft pear (Pyrus communis) and Oriental/Japanese pear (P. pyrifolia) are commercially pear species grown in India.

Origin and Distribution

The common pear is originated from Europe and Asia where it has been cultivated since ancient times. The pear was introduced into the New World by European settlers. Early Spanish missionaries carried the fruit to Mexico and California. In most pear-growing countries of the world outside Asia, by far the most widely grown pear variety is Williams’ Bon Chrétien, known in the United States as Bartlett (Verma at el., 2010). A highly popular variety in England and the Netherlands is Conference. Common Italian varieties include Curato, Coscia, and Passe Crassane, the latter also being popular in France. In Asian countries the pear crop comprises primarily local varieties of native species, such as the Asian, or Chinese, pear (P. pyrifolia). Some species, especially the Callery pear and its cultivars, are invasive species and easily escape cultivation in areas outside their natural range. The poet Homer wrote that pears were “Gifts from the Gods”. Today, pears are a favourite fruit of Americans, second only to the apple.

Peach (Prunus persica L. Batsch) belongs to the Prunoideae subfamily of the Rosaceae with other species collectively referred to as “stone fruits. Unusual in its subgenus, the peach is largely self fertile. There are at least 77 wild species of Prunus and most of them are found in Central Asia. Peaches include different types of varieties downy skin with freestone or clingstone (peach), smooth skin with freestone or clingstone (nectarine) (Bretaudeau and Faure, 1991). It is considered as favourite table fruit and highly valued for its taste, flavour and attractive colour. The fruits are rich source of sugars, vitamins and minerals and malic acid (1.2%). Peach fruit shapes vary from round to flat, beaked, skin colors vary from white to red or yellow, the flesh color white or yellow melting or non-melting types and it can be clingstone or freestone. Regions with warm to hot summers are produces highest quality peaches. It has a range of uses as fresh fruit for table purpose as well as processed product especially in sauces, slice production and canning. Peaches are highly ruminative and nutritionally rich crops for mild temperate to subtropical regions. Peaches are excellent sources of fiber, vitamins and antioxidants. The carbohydrates, organic acids, minerals and dietary fiber are among the major constituents of peaches, which contribute to the nutritional quality of both fresh fruits and the juices (Manzoor et al., 2012).

There are many cherry species, but only a few have been domesticated. The sweet cherry trees are large (30–40 feet tall) and usually pyramid shaped. Branches grow upright. The fruits are large, have a deep stem cavity, vary in colour from light yellow to dark red to purplish black. Flowers arise from clusters of 2 to 5 flowers on short spurs with multiple buds at tips; the distal bud develops into a leafy shoot. The flesh ranges in texture from tender to firm, and is sweet. Most sweet cherries are consumed as fresh fruit. The tart cherry, is sometime called “red cherry” or “sour cherry” and may have arisen from an unreduced pollen grain of Prunus avium crossed with Prunus fruiticosa. Trees are very cold hardy, but are shorter lived than sweet cherry. The fruit is relatively small, and have higher acid and lower sugar content than sweet cherry. Tart cherries are used for processing, jam, and pie filling. The Duke cherry is a hybrid of Prunus avium and Prunus cerasus and all gradations between the two species exist, but most varieties more closely resemble sweet cherry. Sweet cherries are the variety most often found in markets. They have a thick, rich, and almost plumb-like texture. Sour cherries are not usually eaten raw, but are widely used for making preserves, candy etc. Sour cherries are much smaller than sweet cherries and all varieties are self-fertile. Cherries are cultivated all over the world and the top 3 producers of cherry are Turkey, USA and Iran. The cultivated forms are of the species sweet cherry (Prunus avium) to which most cherry cultivars belong, and the another sour cherry (P. cerasus), which is used mainly for making preserve etc. Both species originate in Europe and western Asia; they do not cross pollinate. Some other species, although having edible fruit, are not grown extensively for consumption, except in northern regions where the two main species will not grow.

Japanese plum (Prunus salicina) is widely grown in hill and to a limited scale in the plains of north-western India. Although the fruit quality of plums produced in subtropical is poor however, it fetches high process in the market because of it early availability. Its availability in market at a time when the competition from other fruits is less. It is known as Japanese plum due to its cultivation in Japan from where cultivars spread to other places. At present, plum is cultivated in all temperate climate countries of the world. Plums are a familiar part of our diets. These sweet, fleshy fruit are a common sight in super market shelves. Prunus domestica, the European plum, is an important crop that has been cultivated in Europe for over 2,000 years. When the early European settlers landed on the shores of North America, they found various kinds of native plums scattered throughout the countryside, all of which were found to be of inferior quality. Until the 19th century, most plum cultivation in the United States was confined to the European varieties that were brought overseas. Today, new plum hybrids of native and Asian species have been developed for fresh market consumption, but Prunus domestica remains the prime source for processing plums. Depending on the variety, these plums can be good for either canning, drying as prunes, for culinary uses, or, in lesser amounts, eaten fresh.

Walnut (Juglans regia L.) is commonly known as ‘Akhrot’ in India. Internationally, walnut is known as English walnut or Persian walnut. It is an important nut grown in temperate regions of the world. It is cultivated for nut and wood in the northern hemisphere (Europe, Asia, and North America) and the Southern hemisphere (Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and South America). Walnut kernel is rich source of proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals and polyphenols. Inclusion of walnuts in human diet has positive effect on heart, skin and circulatory system. Wood of walnut is used for making quality furniture, interior joinery constructions,music instruments, carving, sport items, gun stocks and fore-end, and producing highly figured veneers, usually from burrs, which are used for cabinet-making and decorative panels

Almond (Prunus dulcis, syn. Prunus amygdalus Batsch.) is an important temperate fruit crop. In India, it is mostly cultivated in Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. Almond is a small deciduous tree, growing to 3–10 m tall, with a trunk up to 30 cm diameter. The young shoots are green at first, becoming purplish where exposed to sunlight, then grey in their second year. The leaves are lanceolate, 4–13 cm long and 1.2–4 cm broad, with a serrated margin and a 2.5cm petiole. The flowers are white or pale pink, 3–5 cm diameter with five petals, produced singly or in pairs before the leaves in early spring. The fruit is a drupe 3.5–6 cm long, with a downy outer coat. The outer covering or exocarp, fleshy in other members of Prunus such as the plum and cherry, is reduced to a leathery grey-green coat called the hull, which contains inside a hard shell the edible kernel, commonly called a nut in culinary terms. Generally, one kernel is present, but occasionally two. However, in botanical terms, an almond is not a true nut. In botanical parlance, the reticulated hard stony shell is called an endocarp. It is mature in the autumn, 7–8 months after flowering. The fruit of the wild forms contains the glycoside amygdalin, “which becomes transformed into deadly prussic acid (hydrogen cyanide) after crushing, chewing, or any other injury to the seed”. However, domesticated almonds are not toxic.(FAO, 2013 and Verma, 2014).

Loquat (Eriobotrya japonica) is a subtropical evergreen fruit tree belongs to family Rosaceae and subfamily Pomoideae (Lindley, 1982). It flowers in early winter and fruits ripen in mid march and may where there is scarcity of fruits. It is native to southeast China and has been cultivated in China for over 2000 years and many species occur there in wild state (Lin et al. 1999). Loquat is introduced in India under the name of Japanese medlar or Java plum. In India, it is commercially cultivated in Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh and hills of southern states. Among different states Uttar Pradesh occupies the first position under loquat production.

Loquat is delicious fruit known for their mild, subacid and sweet taste. It contains 60 to 70 per cent pulp depending upon the cultivar and 15–20 per cent seed. In addition to 88% water pulp is composed of 55% vitamins and 0.5% minerals, 0.6% proteins, 9.6% carbohydrates and 1.0% fibre. Loquat fruit is also rich in phenolics and carotenoids.

Apricot (Prunus armeniaca), also known as Armenian plum, is a delicious fruit with a pleasant flavor and aroma. It is consumed fresh, dried or canned and highly appreciated by many. The name ‘apricot’ (albicocco, albericocco) is most probably derived from the combination of arbor and precox from the Latin word praecocia (precocious), due to its early maturation (Faust et al., 1998).

Origin and Distribution

Apricot is native to north-eastern China whereas wild apricot, known as zardalu, belongs to India. It is introduced in India by the european settlers and missionaries during the late 19^th century.

It is grown in different countries viz., Turkey, Uzbekistan, Italy, Spain, Japan, Algeria, Iran and Pakistan etc. Among these countries Turkey, Uzbekistan and Italy are leading producers of apricot (FAO, 2017). In India, it is grown commercially in hills of Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand and also in some hills in North-eastern states. It can also be grown in the dry temperate areas like, Ladakh, Kinnaur, Lahul and Spiti in Himachal Pradesh and some areas of Jammu and Kashmir. In India, it occupies as area of 13115 ha with a production of 17894 MT (NHB.2010).

M.K. Mahawar⁴

Scientist, ICAR- Central Institute for Research on Cotton Technology, Mumbai Maharashtra

Strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa Duch.) is a man made fruit belong to family Rosaceae. Due to high nutritive value and market potential, this fruit is being grown by small and marginal farmers. This is the only fruit which gives quickest return in shortest time 100 to 120 days only than any other fruit which usually take 3 to 5 year in giving return. Farmers are showing their keen interest to grow this crop in all part of country due to market value. Strawberry has a unique place among all the berry fruits because of its charming red color and high nutritive value

Kiwifruit (often shortened to kiwi outside Australia and New Zealand), or Chinese gooseberry, is the edible berry of several species of woody vines in the genus Actinidia (Lucas, 2003 and Stirk, 2005). The most common cultivar group of kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa ‘Hayward’) is oval, about the size of a large hen’s egg: 5–8 cm (2.0–3.1 in) in length and 4.5–5.5 cm (1.8–2.2 in) in diameter. In 2017, China produced 50% of the world total of kiwifruit.

Kiwi is among the very few recent introductions which have surpassed in popularity due to its tremendous commercial potential in the Sub Himalayan region of India. In fact, no other fruit has attracted so much attention in such a short period in history of commercial fruit production since 1960s. In India, Kiwi was first planted in the Lal Bagh Garden (1960) at Bangalore as an ornamental tree where bud bursting didn’t take place. Later on for cultivation purpose it was planted at IARI, Regional Station, Shimla (H.P.)

Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) is sacredly considered as Kalpavriksha as it supplements the human beings.The popular name coconut is considered to be derived from Spanish word Coco implying “monkey face” which designates reference to the triple scars embossed on the shell which are identical to two eyes and a nose on the monkey’s face. Coconut belongs to family Arecaceae. Coconut palm has been the platform of a critical and sustainable life support system in the humid tropical parts of India. It is undoubtedly the most utilized plant on planet earth in context of number and wide range of products encompassing from the edible kernel, oil, shell liquid which is used as a refreshing drink, sweet sap and endless derivative of foliage, trunk and fiber utilized for widespread utility in agriculture field.

The production of coconut has continued to expand under the traditional niches of marginal land holders and subsistent farmers in the Southern states of our country. Coconut possesses unique capacity to survive and grow in typically distinct soil conditions while it broadly restricts to the regions possessing medium and high rainfall situations. Coconut plays a pivotal role in the economy of India. India is the leading producer of coconut around the globe possessing 31% share with a production of 20440 million nuts from an area of 1975 thousand hectares. Coconut industry supplements sustenance and livelihood to around 12 million people in India. Coconut is aptly known as Kalpavriksha which sensibly means that each and every part of a coconut is utilizable to support the mankind. The leaves of coconut palms get its utility for thatching of house in traditional ways. Besides this, baskets, sheds and husk are utilized for making coir products. Charcoal and activated carbon are made from shell. Coconut is used daily as a traditional ingredient in local cuisines of various Indian States. The other utility products of coconut include virgin coconut oil, dark chocolate etc. The adoption of these products has generated both income of farmers and employment in coconut sector.

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) is popularly called the ‘Gold mine’ of wasteland. It’s presumed that cashew was originally introduced into India by Portuguese travelers within the sixteenth century mainly for checking erosion on the coast. Initially, it absolutely was considered as an acceptable crop for conservation, afforestation and wasteland development but gradually gained the commercial importance.

Area and Distribution

In India cashew is being grown in an area of 10.62 lakh hectares with total production of 8.17 lakh MT of raw nuts and unit area productivity of 753 kg/ha. India is that the largest producer of raw cashew contributing around 20 per cent of total production of the globe. The foremost distribution of cashew in India is within the states of Kerala, Karnataka, Goa, and Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Andra Pradesh and Orissa along the geographic region and a few extents within the states of state, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat and North East states. The assembly and productivity of the cashew is highest within the states of Maharashtra. The best average productivity of the Maharashtra is about 1318 kg/ha followed by West Bengal and Kerala in country. India is that the major exporter of cashew Kernels and earns a large amount of overseas exchange to the tune of `5,871 crores each year. The country exports cashew kernel to quite sixty countries mainly to USA, UAE, Netherlands, Saudi Arabia and Japan. A complete of 1.19 lakh MT of cashew kernels was exported to those countries additionally to other byproducts like cashew shell liquids etc. (Anonymous, 2017–18). India is also the second largest exporter of shelled cashew (kernels) in the world and follows Vietnam.

Arecanut (Areca catechu L.) or Betel nut is an extensively cultivated tropical palm, belongs to family Arecaceae, fruit (nut) or dry kernel of this tree is popularly known as the betel nut or supari is used for masticatory or Chewing purpose in India and all over world especially in West and South Asia. The major areca nut growing countries are: India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal, China, Myanmar, Bhutan, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia and Vietnam. In India, it is an important commercial crop and also forms part of ritual offerings in Hindu religion. India is the largest producer and largest consumer of Arecanut in the world. The present production of arecanut in India is cultivated in about 4.97 lakh ha with a production of 8.33 lakh tonnes of nuts with the productivity of 1.7MT/ha (Source: Department of Agriculture, Govt. of India, 2018). Arecanut is predominantly cultivated in traditional states like Karnataka, Assam, Kerala, Maharashtra, West Bengal and Andaman and Nicobar group of Islands and it’s cultivation is spread to non-traditional areas in Kamataka and Tamil Nadu. Areca nut is providing livelihood security for millions of people in rural and urban areas.

The seed contains alkaloids such as arecaidine and arecoline, which, when chewed, are intoxicating and slightly addictive. The seed also contains condensed tannins (procyanidins) called arecatannins. Chewing the mixture of arecanut and betel leaf is a tradition, custom or ritual which dates back thousands of years in much of the geographical areas from South Asia eastward to the Pacific.

Rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) is a tropical tree crop of industrial importance which is mainly cultivated for its latex. It is also known as ‘Para Rubber’ tree, a commercial source of natural rubber. Rubber latex is a milky white liquid, a suspension of rubber particles (cis-1,4–polyisoprene) known for its elastic properties produced in specialized cells called laticifers which have to be coagulated to obtain the rubber. Rubber was introduced by the British in India for commercial cultivation and became an established industry. The rubber industry is divided into two sectors: tyre and non-tyre of which automotive tyre sector is the single largest sector of rubber consumption.

Tea, the oldest known beverage, is native of China in South East Asia. It was known to the Chinese as early as 2737 BC, but attained the status of a popular drink in England in 1664 A.D. It was planted on a large scale in North India in 1834 while in South India from 1859 to 1897 in different tea growing districts. As on today, 38 countries grow tea and among which India, China, Sri Lanka and Indonesia have major share in area and production. India is the largest producer, consumer and exporter in tea industry.

Coffee is a much sought after beverage and plantation crop grown in about 80 countries across the globe of which over 50 are considered to be major producers. Coffee is also the second largest traded commodity in the world, next to petroleum products and is popularly referred to as “Brown Gold”. Coffee contributes substantially to the national exchequers of the producing countries through export earnings and also generates employment to about 120 million people in production, processing and trading, worldwide. The economic relevance of coffee is underlined by the fact that it generates significant income throughout the supply chain, representing a gross added value of over USD 458 billion annual (Belo Horizonte Declaration, International Coffee Organization, Sept. 2013). The annual revenue of the coffee industry alone is estimated to exceed USD 200 billion. At origin, production of coffee provides livelihood for up to 25 million farmers and their families. (Coffee Development report, ICO, 2019).

Caffeine is a major pharmacologically active compound in coffee and it is a mild central nervous system stimulant. ³. In addition caffeine is added to many popular carbonated drinks and is also a component of a number of pharmacological preparations and over-the-counter medicines. A typical cup of coffee provides approximately 75–100 mg caffeine. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) in its ‘Scientific Opinion on the Safety of Caffeine’ concluded that ‘habitual intakes of caffeine up to 400 mg per day do not give rise to safety concerns for non-pregnant adults. They also advised that intakes up to 200 mg per day do not give concern for those who are pregnant or breastfeeding.

1.1 Forest Resources

Forest resources usually provide the raw materials for homes, workplaces, the books and newspapers, and the packaging that contains food and other products of our labor. Forest ecosystems supply our water, maintain our climate, and help purify the air, protect soils, and provide for wilderness experiences. Forests provide habitat for wildlife, and serve as preserves of biological diversity. Forests are sources of food, fuel and medicine for people all over the world. Forests shape the recreational landscape, help stabilize our farms, and enhance our cities.

About 30 per cent of the world’s total land areas are covered by forest with the area of 3.9 billion hectares. Nearly 47 percent of the world’s forests are in the tropics, 33 percent in the boreal zone, 11 percent in the temperate zones, and 9 percent in sub-tropical areas. The 94 million hectares of forest lost over the ten-year period, represented about 2 per cent of the world’s total forest cover, or an area larger than Venezuela. Two thirds of the world’s forests are located in ten countries: the Russian Federation, Brazil, Canada, the United States, China, Australia, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Indonesia, Angola and Peru. Most of the deforestation work was performed in natural tropical forests, which lost 14.2 million hectares a year over the last decade. Africa and South America have suffered the most deforestation.

Africa was the region with the highest deforestation in the world, which lost 5.3 million hectares of forest per year in the 1990s. Forests are a major factor in the climate change issue. Forest ecosystems contain more than half of all terrestrial carbon, and account for about 80 per cent of the exchange of carbon between terrestrial ecosystems and the atmosphere. Deforestation in the 1980s may have accounted for a quarter of all human-induced carbon emissions, the second greatest emitter after fossil fuels. Forest plantations comprise 5 percent of the world’s forests. Asia has the largest area of plantations, accounting for 62 per cent of the world total. China accounts for 24 percent of that total and India, 18 per cent. Plantations supply about 35 percent of the world’s round wood. The area of forest plantations increased by an average of 3 to 4 million hectares per year during the 1990s. Half of this increase was the result of afforestation on land previously under non-forest land use, whereas the other half resulted from conversion of natural forest. There are reports that 12 percent of the world’s forests, or about 480 million hectares, are in protected areas.

2.1 Ecosystem

An ecosystem can be defined as a dynamic entity composed of a biological community and its associated abiotic environment. Often the dynamic interactions that occur within an ecosystem are numerous and complex. Ecosystems are also always undergoing changes or alterations to their biotic and abiotic components. Some of these alterations begin first with a change in the state of one component of the ecosystem which then cascades and sometimes amplifies into other components because of relationships.

The human activities of various kinds have resulted in caused a number of dramatic changes to a variety of ecosystems found on the Earth. Humans use and modify natural ecosystems through agriculture, forestry, recreation, urbanization, and industry. The most obvious impact of humans on ecosystems is the loss of biodiversity. The number of extinctions caused by human domination of ecosystems has been steadily increasing since the start of the Industrial revolution. The frequency of species extinctions is correlated to the size of human population on the Earth which is directly related to resource consumption, land-use change, and environmental degradation. Other human impacts to ecosystems include species invasions to new habitats, changes to the abundance and dominance of species in communities, modification of biogeochemical, and modification of hydrologic cycling, pollution, and climatic change.

3.1 Air Pollution

Air pollution is a phenomenon by which particles either a solid or liquid and gases contaminate the environment. Such contamination can result in health effects on the population, which might be either chronic arising especially from long-term exposure or acute due to accidents. Other effects of pollution may be damage to materials, agricultural damage namely reduced crop yields and tree growth, impairment of visibility namely tiny particles scatter light very efficiently, and even climate change global warming.

3.1.1 Classification of Air Pollutants

Air Pollutants are classified as Natural as well as Anthropogenic. Natural pollutants are those that are found in nature or are emitted from natural sources. For example, volcanic activity produces sulfur dioxide, and particulate pollution may derive from forest fires or windblown dust. Anthropogenic pollutants are those that are produced by humans or controlled processes. For example, sulfur dioxide is produced by fossil fuel combustion and particulate matter comes from diesel engines.

Air pollutants are further classified as primary or secondary. Primary pollutants are those that are emitted directly into the atmosphere from an identifiable source. Examples include carbon monoxide and sulfur dioxide. Secondary pollutants are those that are produced in the atmosphere by chemical and physical processes from primary pollutants and natural constituents. For example, ozone is produced by hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen (both of which may be produced by car emissions) and sunlight.

4.1 Urban Issues

(i) Water Problem

The world’s population is increasingly found in the cities. Now a days, throughout the developing world, urbanization trends are gaining speed and are irreversible. From a technical standpoint, it is easier to provide water and sanitation services to people living closer together in urban settings than in dispersed rural communities. However, the costs of meeting the needs are much higher per capita, and are growing. The health risks posed by the lack of sanitation increase exponentially as densities increase and as people share drinking water and sanitation resources.

The urban environmental sanitation crisis in developing countries is taking a large health, economic, and environmental toll on all city residents. Willingness to pay for basic water and sanitation services is often high in peri- urban neighbourhoods, provided that services are appropriate, effective, and affordable. The use of a strategic sanitation approach should helps to build capacity within implementing agencies and enhances the ability of communities to make sustainable sanitation improvements.

(ii) Energy Problem

Energy is basic to development. Modern energy services are powerful engine of economic and social opportunity: no country has managed to develop much beyond a subsistence economy without ensuring at least minimum access to energy services for a broad section of its population. It is not surprising to find, therefore, that the billion who live in developing countries attach a high priority to energy services. On average, these people spend nearly 12% of their income on energy. At the same time, the provision of energy services especially through the combustion of fossil fuels and biomass can create adverse environmental effects. In rich countries, much attention is directed to the regional and global consequences of fuel combustion, because many of the local effects have been controlled at considerable expense over the past half- century. In developing countries, the local environmental problems associated with energy use remain matters of concern that are as, or even more, urgent than they were in industrialized countries 50 or 100 years ago. Further, it is the poor who suffer most severely from such problems, because it is they who are forced to rely upon the most inefficient and polluting sources of energy services for lack of access to better alternatives.

5.1 Population Growth

In 2000, the world had 6.1 billion human inhabitants. This figure may rise to more than 9 billion in the next 50 years. For the last 50 years, world population multiplied more rapidly than ever before, and more rapidly than it will ever grow in the future. Anthropologists believe the human species dates back at least 3 million years. For most of our history, these distant ancestors lived a precarious existence as hunters and gatherers. This way of life kept their total numbers small, probably less than 10 million. However, as agriculture was introduced, communities evolved that could support more people.

World population expanded to about 300 million by A.D. 1 and continued to grow at a moderate rate. But after the start of the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century, living standards rose and widespread famines and epidemics diminished in some regions. Population growth accelerated. The population climbed to about 760 million in 1750 and reached 1 billion around 1800.

In 1800, the vast majority of the world’s population (86 percent) resided in Asia and Europe, with 65 percent in Asia alone. By 1900, Europe’s share of world population had risen to 25 percent, fueled by the population increase that accompanied the Industrial Revolution. Some of this growth spilled over to the Americas, increasing their share of the world total. The 2000 growth rate of 1.4 percent, when applied to the world’s 6.1 billion population, yields an annual increase of about 85 million people. Because of the large and increasing population size, the number of people added to the global population will remain high for several decades, even as growth rates continue to decline.

Between 2000 and 2030, nearly 100 percent of this annual growth will occur in the less developed countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, whose population growth rates are much higher than those in more developed countries.

Analytical chemistry is a branch of chemistry dealing with the determination of constituents of a substance or mixture of substances.

1.1 Qualitative Analysis

Qualitative analysis deals with the identification of the constituents of a substance, mixture of substances, or solutions and the way in which component element or a group of elements are constituted.

1.2 Quantitative Analysis

Quantitative analysis is concerned with the determination of quantitative contents of individual element or group of elements or compound present in the substances. This branch of analytical chemistry is of enormous scope and importance in science, industry and agriculture. The quantitative analysis can be divided into several categories based on the different methods employed for their quantitative measurements such as:

2.1 Beakers

Beakers are the one of most important vessels used in laboratory which is made up of heat resistant glass.

They are available in various capacities ranging from 10 to 3000 mL.

For convenience of pouring solution, spout is provided in the beaker.

They are used to perform titrations & for boiling solutions, etc.,

Beakers are constructed in tall and low forms.

Instrumental methods of chemical analysis are the quantitative methods of analysis that use, as principal measuring devices, instruments other than those employed in conventional gravimetric and volumetric determinations.

The main basis for this method of analysis is the physical property of any particular element or compound being analyzed. These properties include:

Practice to calculate the weight / volume of reagents required to prepare the following standard solutions.

Preparation of Standard Solution - (1 M, 0.1 M, 1 N, 0.1 N, 0.5 N, 5%, 10%, 20%, 10 ppm, 20 ppm, 100 ppm)

5.1 Volumetric Techniques or Titrimetric Analysis

Acid Base Neutralization Reactions-Acidimetry & Alkalimetry

Oxidation –Reduction Reactions-Oxidometry (Permanganometry) & Dichrometry

Principle

Standard solutions are the solutions of accurately known concentrations. There are two types of standard solutions viz., primary and secondary.

A known quantity of the substances is dissolved in a volumetric flask and the volume is made upto the mark. Standard solutions prepared in this way are known as primary standard. This method can be used for preparation of standard solutions of substances which satisfy the following conditions.

More often, if the reagent is not a primary standard, a secondary standard solution must be prepared. The chemical is dissolved and made up or diluted to the desired concentration and then it is standardized against a primary standard or against another reliably known secondary standard solution. Such solutions are called as secondary standard solutions.

Principle

Equal volumes of all acids / bases containing their gram equivalent weights per litre of the solution react completely with each other.

Soil is analyzed to know the nature of soil, to classify and advocate to farmers about the peculiarities of the soils and how much of fertilizers should be applied for better crop production.

A composite soil, of course, can not be moved to into a laboratory. The value of the laboratory work depends upon care in sampling. Each soil sample needs to be a fair representative of the specific area or horizon worth sampling.

If the sample is to be a representative of an area, it is necessary to take large number of samples spread over the area, pool them and sub-sample it so as to get a sample of desired size. For soil survey work, samples are collected from a profile which is typical of the soil of the surrounding area.

Principle

Soil moisture content is determined by drying a known quantity of soil sample in an electric oven at 105° C to 110° C and finding out the loss in weight.

Bulk density is the mass per unit volume of soil including pore space. The normal range of bulk density in most soils is ranging from 1.02 to 1.80 g / cm³. The bulk density of coarse textured soils will be on the higher side while organic soils will have lower bulk density.

Particle density is the mass of soil per unit volume excluding pore space. Pore space is that fraction of soil volume not occupied by solid particles.

Principle

The bulk density and percent pore space are determined from the apparent and true volumes of the soil measures by adding a known quantity of water to a measuring cylinder contain a weighed quantity of soil.

(International/Robinson’s Pipette Method)

Principle

This method is based on Stoke’s law. According to this law, the rate of fall of a particle in liquid is directly proportional to the square of its radius.

Principle

When water is ponded inside the concentric metallic rings driven into the soil, the rate of recession (fall) of the water level, or the rate of water withdrawn from a supply source used to maintain a constant head of water on the soil surface, gives the infiltration rate of the soil.

During infiltration of water into the soil, appreciable lateral movement of water may also occur. To avoid the error due to this lateral movement, two concentric rings are used. Equal heights of water are to be maintained in both the rings. The infiltration is measured in the inner ring only. The rate of water intake per unit area varies markedly with the size of the rings and the depth of the soil to which they are driven into. Infiltration rate studies are preceded by the profile, initial soil moisture and any other problems of the region in which the soil is located.

(Keen-Rackzowski/Hilgard Apparatus Method)

Principle

With the capillary rise of water, the soil immediately above a water table gets saturated. The height upto which the soil is saturated depends on the texture, structure and packing of the soil mass. The experimental technique discussed herein permits approximation of maximum water holding capacity while determining the amount of water held in the soil at the point of saturation.

The pH is defined as negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration or the log of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion concentration (Sorenson, 1906).

Principle

A glass electrode in contact with hydrogen ions of the solution acquires an electric potential which depends on the concentration of hydrogen ions. This is measured potentiometrically against some reference electrode which is usually a calomel electrode. The potential difference between glass electrode and calomel electrode is expressed in pH units.

Two electrodes are used in the determination of pH. One is reference electrode which provides a standard voltage and is usually a saturated calomel electrode which has two layers of saturated solution of KCl and mixture of solid HgCl₂ and Hg. The outer tube is usually 5-15 cm long, 0.5-1 cm in diameter. The mixture of solid HgCl₂ + Hg paste is contained in an inner tube that is connected to the saturated KCl solution in the outer tube by means of small opening. The resistance developed by this type of electrode is 2000-3000 Ohms.

The outer electrode is glass electrode that consists of a tube enclosing a lead wire made up of Ag coated with AgCl. This wire is again enclosed in a wax insulation. To the tube at the bottom is attached a glass bulb made up of a special kind of glass which is sensitive to hydrogen ions. The thickness of the glass membrane varies from 0.03 to 0.1 mm and has a resistance of 50 to 500 mega Ohms.

When these electrodes are dipped in solution, the saturated solution of KCl comes out of reference through small holes and forms an invisible ionic bridge between electrodes through which current passes. The hydrogen ions are absorbed by glass electrode and depending upon the amount of hydrogen ions present in the solution, an electric potential develops between electrodes. This potential difference is measured in terms of pH units by suitable Galvanometer.

The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soil is a measure of soluble salts present in the soil and is expressed as millimhos/cm or dSm^-1.

Principle

As the amount of the soluble salts in a solution increases, the electrical conductivity also increases. This electrical conductivity is measured in terms of resistance offered to the flow of current using a conductivity bridge.

It is known that solutions offer some resistance to the passage of current through them, depending upon the concentration of the soluble salts present. Hence, EC is measured in terms of electrical Resistance between parallel electrodes immersed in the soil water suspension.

In such a system, the solution between the electrodes becomes the electrical conductor to which the physical laws relating to resistance are applicable. The electrical resistance ‘R’ is directly proportional to the distance ‘L’ between the electrodes and inversely proportional to the cross sectional area ‘A’ of the conductor.

[Titrimetric/ Walkley and Black (1934) Method]

Introduction

The role of soil organic matter, in relation to soil fertility and physical conditions, are widely recognized. The organic matter is the source of plant nutrients which are released inassimilable forms during microbial degradation. A major proportion of N (95 – 99 % of the total), P (33 – 67 % of the total) and S (75 % of the total) in soils occur in organic combinations, which mineralize to release the nutrients in inorganic forms to be used by plants. Nevertheless, it serves as a reservoir of plant nutrients, in promoting water storage, and in regulating microbial activity.

The organic matter content of a soil varies from 0.344 % in very sandy arid soils to more than 86 % in Peats and Mucks. Soil organic matter contains 5 % N, and 0.5 % each of P and S, thereby, having a N:P:S ratio of 10:1:1. The organic matter content of a soil is estimated by the amount of organic carbon (C) present, as this element represents, on an average, 52 – 58 % of the organic matter, and the C:N ratio is 10 – 15. In the sub-soil, the average organic carbon amount is 36 – 44 % (40 %), and the C:N ratio is < 8. In order to find out the amount of humified organic material, the organic carbon content is multiplied by 1.724, which represents the ratio between the humus and the organic carbon (100/58) and is known as the ‘von Bemmlen factor ’.

The organic matter content of soils is estimated from the organic carbon, determined by using the ‘Titrimetric method / Walkley and Black method. The Titrimetric determination, also known as the ‘wet-digestion method’ involves a rapid titration procedure for the estimation of organic carbon content of soils.

[Alkaline Permanganate / Subbiah and Asija (1956) Method]

Introduction

Nitrogen (N) is found in the arable horizon of the soil, mostly in organic material. In the soil solution, organic N is gradually transformed into ammoniacal (NH₄ ⁺), nitrite (NO₂ ^–) and nitrate (NO₃ ^–) nitrogen by microbial processes. Organic-N is, in itself, of very little use to plants, as it can not be absorbed as such. It is, therefore, necessary to estimate the different forms of mineralized or available N. The NO₃ ^–_N and NO₂ ^–-N together, hardly, exceed 1 % of the total N in normal soil.

The available N in soil refers to a fraction of the total N which is converted into forms accessible to the plants. This constitutes, on an average, only 0.5-2.5 % (rarely 5 %) of the total N in a soil at any given time. Nitrogen is, generally, absorbed by plants as NO₃ ^–, under oxidized environment (upland condition), and as NH₄ ⁺, under reduced condition. NO₂ ^– is sometimes, detectable, but the amount is, generally, very small vis-a-vis NH₄ ⁺ or NO₃ ^– and, hence does not warrant its determination. The sum total of NH₄ ⁺ and NO₃ ^–- N is smaller than the total N, which becomes available to plants and the difference being attributed to the mineralization of the organic N, during the crop growth cycle.

[Bray’s Method (Bray and Kurtz, 1945) – Acid Soils]

Introduction

The term available phosphorus (P) refers to the inorganic form, occurring in the soil solution, which is almost exclusively ‘orthophosphate’. This orthophosphate occurs in several forms and combinations, and only a small fraction of the total amount present may be available to plants, which is of direct relevance in assessing the P fertility level.

The phosphate concentration in solution is governed by heterogeneous equilibria in which it takes part. This situation can be represented as follows:

P adsorbed in solid phase ↔ P in the soil solution ↔ P precipitated

The phosphorus absorbed by plants from soil solution comes from the soil solution in which it exists as inorganic orthophosphate ions viz., H₂PO₄ ^–, HPO₄ ^2– and PO₄ ^3–. The most accessible ion is H₂PO₄ ^–, with the greatest activity coefficient, followed by HPO₄ ^2–. The quantity of P accessible to the plants is influenced by a series of soil properties. The relative abundance of these ions is, however, relatively dependent on the soil pH. For soils having a pH between 4.5 and 7.5, ions of H₂PO₄ ^– as well as HPO₄ ^2– exist in soil solution. At a pH of 7.2, H₂PO₄ ^–and HPO₄ ^2– ions have an equal activity, and, when the pH is strongly alkaline (>8.3), ions of HPO₄ ^2– predominate in solution. Above pH of 9.0, the trivalent ion (PO₄ ^3–) becomes more important than H₂PO₄ ^–, but even at a pH of 12, the HPO₄ ^2– concentration is still greater than that of PO₄ ^3–. Soluble phosphorus may be adsorptively retained at the surface of colloidal particles. This retention is more marked when the higher amounts of clay and sesquioxides are present. Relatively, the available inorganic P tends to accumulate in its most stable state under prevailing conditions, thus, in calcareous soils, the available inorganic P would be acid-soluble, whereas, in acid soils the adsorbed P would be more available. In flooded soils, with low oxidation potential, certain forms of P, normally considered as unavailable, for example, iron and phosphate, can be regarded as available. In most soils, the main source of orthophosphate is organic matter unless, of course, direct fertilization, with soluble phosphate, has been made.

(Neutral Normal Ammonium Acetate Method)

Introduction

The total potassium (K) content of a soil varies from 0.05 to 2.5 %. The total K is distributed in mineral form (lattice – K, 90-98 %), fixed non-exchangeable or temporarily retrograded K (1-10 %) and exchangeable plus water soluble K (1-2 %). Exchangeable K represents an average of 2 – 15 % of the sum of exchangeable bases and 1 – 3 % of the total capacity for cation exchange. The K concentration in the soil solution is on an average 0.08 – 3 meq/litre. Both water soluble and exchangeable K are most accessible to the plant. Available K can, thus be separated into that, immediately available, which is water soluble and exchangeable, and that, potentially available or fixed. The neutral normal ammonium acetate extract contains both water soluble and exchangeable K. K extraction by this extractant is considered as a suitable index of K availability in most soils, based on crop response correlation study. Thus, the K extracted by this method is equated as the available K.

[Williams and Steinbergs (1959) Method]

Introduction

Sulphur (S) occurs in numerous forms in soil, viz., sulphites, sulphates, sulphides and in organic compounds. It is considered that the most accessible form is ‘sulphate’ (SO₄ ^2–). The organic forms of S compounds become assimilable, especially following, microbiological transformation into SO₄ ^2–. The mineralization of organic S in a soil depends primarily upon the N:S ratio, and any SO₄ ^2– formed may be fixed against extraction, particularly if much Fe or Ba is present or if the soil is very acid. Despite the fact that the plants absorb S almost exclusively as SO₄ ^2–, mobility of SO₄ ^2– in soil may not always yield satisfactory results in accordance with the time of sampling, while assessing SO₄ ^2– availability.

[Shoemaker, Mc Lean and Pratt (SMP) Method, 1961]

Introduction

For proper plant growth, the soil should have a pH between 6.5 and 7.5, though there are certain plants which can grow satisfactorily at low pH, for example, tea, and at high pH, for example, sugar beet. In India, acid soils are located mostly in Eastern, Southern and South Central parts though some soils, at higher elevations, in North India are acidic.

In order to achieve maximum yield and sustained productivity through efficient soil management practices, it is essential to lime an acid soil, as it has considerable influence on soil environment, besides correcting soil acidity.

Several methods have been proposed to determine the lime requirement of acidic soils, to raise the pH around 6.5. The soil pH value alone, however, is not a good criterion for lime recommendation, because of variations in the exchange acidity of soil, and the nature of crops which may not require as high as this pH to produce maximum yield. Of these various methods proposed, the Shoemaker / SMP method was found satisfactory.

The recent trend of liming is to use it as a fertilizer rather than as amendment so as not to disturb heavily the natural environment while ensuring sustained productivity.

[Schoonover (1952) Method]

Introduction

Sodic (Alkali) and Saline-Sodic soils are characterized by the presence of large amounts of sodium, as high as 15% or more, on their exchange complex. As a result of this, the pH of soils increases beyond 8.0, causing nutritional imbalances, elimination of soil organic matter, deterioration of soil physical condition, etc., besides affecting the soil biotic community. Gypsum (CaSO₄. 2H₂O) is commonly used for the management of such soils, when applied in right amounts and size.

Principle

A given weight of soil is equilibrated with a known amount of Ca solution, and the amount of Ca, left in the solution is determined by EDTA titration. The difference between the amount of Ca added and the Ca left in the solution, gives the amount of Ca exchanged. In practice, gypsum of about 1/3 of the value, obtained by this method, is satisfactory in most cases.