eChapters

Introduction

Emerging and reemerging infectiousdiseases are defined as the diseases of which the incidence has shown an increasing trend in the recent past or threatening to increase in the near future. Emerging infectious disease (EID) are caused by apathogen previously unknown to cause disease orre-emerging pathogens, which have previously causeddisease but now reveal increased infectivity orextended transmission ranges that improve their ability to cause disease in human populations. Today, whole world is facing a concerning rise in emerging infectious diseases and the majority of EID have been observed in the past decades.Multiple recent EID outbreaks e.g. the 2003 SARS and the 2012 MERS outbreaks, the 2009 swine flu pandemic,the 2013–2016 Ebolavirus epidemic, the 2014chikungunya outbreak in the Western Hemisphere,the 2015 Zika and the 2019 SARS Cov 2 virus epidemic have exhibited significantmorbidity and mortality and large geographicranges. These outbreakshave indicated the potential for evenmore severe outcomes in future outbreaks. Severaladditional pathogens are also considered capable ofproducing EID outbreaks, these include Escherichia coliO157:H7, hantavirus, dengue virus and West Nilevirus, while malaria, tuberculosis (TB), cholera, andinfluenza are often considered reemerging diseases with the potential for new outbreaks.Many newly emerging diseases in humans are actually long-standing zoonosesof animal host species that appeared inhuman populations following a climatic or environmental change. The complex interplay between climate change, ecosystems, and human activities have created conditions that favour the emergence and spread of infectious diseases posing significant challenges to public health. Although, improved sanitation, increased access to health care, and advances in preventive and clinical medicine have reduced the mortality and morbidity rates of several infectious diseases.

Introduction

“Invest in Women: Accelerate Progress” -the theme of the International Women’s Day 2024 celebrated by the United Nations and multiple organizations across the world highlighted the need of review of different works and efforts in bringing gender equality in various development departmentsincluding agriculture and allied sectors. This reflects the importance being given to the efforts towards gender equality at the highest level.

Agrifood systems are a major employer of women globally and constitute a more important source of livelihood for women than for men in many countries. Empowering women and closing gender gaps in agrifood systems thus, enhances the well-being of women and their households, reducing hunger, boosting incomes and strengthening resilience.Increasing women’s empowerment is essential for women’s well-being and has a positive impact on agricultural production, food security, diets and child nutrition. Also,the gender-transformative approaches to change restrictive social norms are cost effective and have high returns, but morework is needed on developing pathways to implement gender-transformative approaches.

Introduction

The preservation of animal specimens for museums is a critical practice in natural history, enabling education, research, and conservation awareness. Traditionally, specimens are often sourced from zoological facilities or specific conservation programs. However, the innovative use of fallen animals—animals that have died of natural causes or accidents—presents a sustainable and ethical method of specimen preparation. India has large livestock population. As per 20th livestock census in the country, livestock sector of India comprised of 303 million bovines (Cattle, Buffalo, Mithun and Yak), 74.26 million sheep, 148.88 million goats, 9.06 million pigs and about 851.81 million poultry. Each year large number of livestock is lost due to natural disaster such as flood, cyclones, draughts avalanches, landslides, snowstorm and forest fire. Approximately 55% of its buffalo, 38% of its cattle, 41% of its goats and 47% of its pigs are vulnerable to floods which regularly destroy farmlands. On the other hand, 44% of country’s livestock are affected by draught. Cyclones also causes huge loss to the livestock as well as to the wildlife. According to Down to Earth magazine and Centre for Science and Environment approximately 92519 livestock were killed in India in 2023 due to extreme weather including cyclones.

Introduction

Parvoviruses are nonenveloped, single-stranded DNA viruses belonging to the genus Protoparvovirus, member of the Parvoviridae family, that has been included within the species Carnivore protoparvovirus 1, together with Feline panleukopenia virus (FPV), Mink enteritis virus (MEV) and Raccoon parvovirus (RPV), according to the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (Tijssenet al 2011). Two distinct parvoviruses are known to infect dogs—the pathogenic CPV 2 and CPV-1 or the minute virus of canine (MVC). CPV-2, the causative agent of acute hemorrhagic enteritis and myocarditis in dogs, is one of the most important pathogenic viruses with high morbidity (100%) and frequent mortality up to 10% in adult dogs and 91% in pups. CPV-2 is the etiologic agent of a contagious disease, mainly characterized by clinical gastroenteritis signs in younger dogs. This virus that causes the disease “parvo”, first emerged among dogs in Europe around 1976. By 1978 the virus had spread unchecked, causing a worldwide epidemic of myocarditis and inflammation in the intestines (gastroenteritis) and could infect domestic dogs, spreading in the global dog population within 2 years. This original type, was rapidly replaced by two antigenic variants, types 2a and 2b (Parrish et al 1985, 1991), and in 2000 a third type CPV-2c was detected (Buonavogliaet al 2001). Canine parvovirus (CPV) is responsible for acute gastroenteritis in pups, with a high rate of mortality (Carmichael and Binn, 1981). We now know the virus is not limited to dogs, but is capable of causing infections in wild canines such as coyotes and wolves, and other wild animals, including foxes, raccoons and skunks. Since its emergence in 1978, it was and remains a common and important cause of morbidity and mortality in young dogs.

Introduction

The classic bone tissue engineering paradigm highlights several key players: biocompatible scaffold that closely mimics the natural bone extracellular matrix niche, osteogenic cells to lay down the bone tissue matrix, morphogenic signals that help to direct the cells to the phenotypically desirable type, and sufficient vascularization to meet the growing tissue nutrient supply and clearance needs. The biomaterials are critical components in the bone-tissue engineering strategies, including polymers, ceramics, or their combinations applied in various forms, such as membranes and three-dimensional (3D) scaffolds. These materials typically mimic the extracellular matrix of bone tissue during the tissue regeneration process, providing mechanical support and a suitable environment for cell attachment, proliferation, and differentiation

Introduction

In modern poultry farming, the need for alternatives to probiotics is increasing due to concerns about the stability, viability, and potential side effects of using live microbes. Postbiotics have emerged as promising substitutes, offering similar health benefits without the risks. Postbiotics are non-viable microbial metabolitewhich exhibit benefits like promoting gut health, boosting immunity, and preventinfections, which are crucial for sustainable poultry production. Postbiotics enhance gut health by modulating immune responses, improve the microbialenvironment,and inhibit pathogenic growth. Furthermore, their incorporation can reduce theneed for antibiotics in poultry farming, contributingto a decrease in antimicrobial resistance. With the growing global population and increasing demand for animal protein, postbiotics offer sustainable solutions. The review concludes that postbiotics could revolutionize poultry farming, aligning with global efforts toward food security and the achievement of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, particularly Goal 2 i.e. Zero Hunger. Future research should focus on optimizing these additives for large-scale commercial use.This paper highlights the concepts of postbiotics, their mechanisms of action, current research advances, beneficial effects in poultry farming, and future prospects.

Introduction

Climate change specifies long-term shifts in weather patterns, which are measured over decades to millions of years. In modern times, it predominantly concerns the increase in Earth’s average temperature due to human activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels10. The rise in greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide traps heat in the atmosphere, leading to global warming. In connection with animal health, climate change affects the ecosystems in which animals live, influencing the availability of water and food, the spread of diseases, and the physiological stress animals endure due to temperature extremes. Domestic animals, mostly livestock, are vulnerable to heat stress and reduced productivity, whereas wildlife faces altered habitats and increased exposure to pathogens. The connection between climate change and animal health is intricate, as changes in temperature, humidity, and weather patterns create new challenges for both domestic and wild species.

Introduction

In poultry, the intestine is home to trillions of microorganisms, with bacterial concentrations reaching up to 10¹² bacteria per gram of digesta. In a healthy digestive system, this microbial community is highly diverse and metabolically active, supporting crucial functions in digestion, immune defense, and overall health. The gastrointestinal tract (GIT) of a newly hatched chick begins as a sterile environment but quickly develops a complex microbiota as the bird matures. The composition of gut microbiota is highly variable, shaped by environmental factors, diet, the genetic makeup of the host, and other influences. This dynamic microbiome plays a pivotal role in nutrient absorption, disease resistance, and growth efficiency, making it a central focus in poultry health management and productivity enhancement.The health and productivity of poultry are fundamentally influenced by the gut microbiome, which shapes digestion, immunity, and growth potential. Microbial diversity variesacross several poultry species, including broilers raised intensively, native chickens in free-range conditions, and unique species such as Guinea fowl, Kadaknath, and red jungle fowl. Using advanced metagenomicsanalysis of microbial diversity, structure, and function, highlighting the implications of microbiota composition on poultry health and productivity possible. The gut microbiota is increasingly recognized as a major determinant of health and productivity in poultry. It not only influences nutrient absorption and metabolism but also plays a critical role in immune response and pathogen resistance. Intensive farming practices have altered gut microbial ecosystems in commercial broilers, often reducing diversity compared to native breeds and heritage species raised in field conditions.

Introduction

Status of Tuberculosis : Tuberculosis is a complex and multispecies disease since the origin of human civilization. Evidence of tuberculosis (TB) exists in 3000 years old Egyptian mummies and about 17,000 year old fossilized bison (Fareed et al., 2024). Now, every year, 10 million people fall ill with tuberculosis. Out of 10 million people currently with new active TB, 1,40,000 (range, 69,800–235,000) are estimated to be new cases of zTB (1.4%) of which an approximately 11,400 (8.1%, range 4,470-21,600) died (WHO, 2020).Despite being a preventable and curable disease, 1.5 million people die from TB each year – making it the world’s top infectious killer (WHO, 2023). Disease is still in an increasing scenario as evident that in 2018, an estimated 10 million people fell ill with TB and 1.5 million died of the disease whereas in 2021 there were an estimated 10.6 million new cases of TB and 1.6 million TB deaths (Ayalew et al., 2023). COVID-19 has further increased the projection of TB and increased the expected case number. As it is predicted that between 2020-2050, 31.8 million will have died of TB, More than half million cases of TB annually are classified as drug resistant, as a result, TB is becoming more difficult to diagnose and treat.

Introduction

The peripartum period, spanning from 3 weeks pre-calving to 3 weeks post calving, is a critical phase in a cow’s life. During this time, cows are susceptible to various diseases that can significantly impact their health, productivity and reproductive performance. Changes in metabolism and lack of optimum immunity have been closely associated with most of the transition period diseases. Hormonal changes in the early lactation results in drain in energy and nutrients rendering the animal in some degree of negative energy balance. Increased lipid mobilization in transition period has its role in fatty liver and ketosis directly.Metabolic stress in peripartum cows refers to the physiological changes that occur around calving, affecting energy and nutrient balance.

Introduction

To maintain optimum reproductive status early diagnosis of reproductive problems is important. Various advance diagnostic techniques are available for diagnosis of reproductive problems. Some of them are still in early stages of development or some though available; are not widely used due to various constrains.The various diagnostic techniques used in animal reproduction are ultrasonography, Doppler ultrasonography, endoscopy, laparoscopy, hormonal assays, vaginal cytology, x ray etc.

Accurate history and Thorough examination of reproductive tract

Accurate history is a powerful tool of enormous clinical value. Behavioral problems due to pain or psychological factors can also be ruled out on the basis of adequate history of the patient. Tentative differential diagnosis can be made by taking history of previous breedings.Through digital and vaginiscopic exanimation of reproductive tract helps to rule out anatomical abnormalities, which may interfere with natural mating. It also helps in diagnosis of fertile phase of oestrus cycle. In cases of refusal to mate due to anatomical problems like septum, narrow passage or due to behavioral problems AI can be performed. Vaginoscopic examination aids vaginal cytology in deciding right time of natural service or insemination in proper breeding management or abnormal oestrus cycle.

Introduction

It is estimated that zoonotic infections account for around 60% of infectious diseases and 70% of newly developing infections in humans. The major zoonotic illnesses that have outbreaks documented between 2009 and 2023 have been divided into two categories: endemic and emergent (IDSP). Zoonoses that are either newly discovered in a population or that have been known to exist in the past but are rapidly expanding in frequency or geographic range are referred to be emerging zoonotic diseases.A variety of underlying causative variables contribute to the genesis of zoonotic illnesses, which pose a worldwide risk to the health of both humans and animals. They reduce food availability, impede agricultural output, and contribute in unnecessary trade embargos. Livestock is crucial to the livelihoods of impoverished farmers, consumers, and traders in India. Close relationships between human population groups and animals, the consumption of unpasteurized milk and dairy products, the intensification of animal production andincreased trade in animals and animal products, the high number of stray animals, illegal slaughter, and improper waste disposal are major risk factors in the introduction and sustenance of zoonotic infections. These outbreaks are continuously increasing. More and more such episodes of new zoonoses such as Nipah virus disease, Crimean Congo Hemorrhagic Fever (CCHF), Kyasanoor Forest Disease (KFD), Dengue, Chikungunya, Japanese encephalitis, and Zika virus disease have been reported between 2014 and 2023 as compared to the period between2009and 2013.