eChapters

Food, clothing and housing are the three basic needs of a man. After that the additional requirement of a man are personal health and happiness. These can be considered as human factors. The material factors are agriculture, industry, trade, water resources management, insurance.

The continuous increase in population made the planners, researchers and cultivators to increase the food production to feed all the people. So, the second green revolution has to follow. Due to increase in air temperature and climate change, the cultivation practices to change based on the changing climatic condition. The study of climate is not only necessary for food production, but also needed for transportation, storage, value addition and consumption.

The need of the cloth for man is not only for style. The basic need is to protecting the human body from the climatic factors like heat and cold. Clothing must provide to maintain the body heat at about 37^oC. Clothing must be made based on the local climatic condition. So, the traditional fiber for making the cloth is better for health.

Housing provides the internal controlled climate to the human being. It provides comfort to the inhabitants. Like clothing traditional styles, sites and methods of housing have to be followed based on the climatic condition. Though people are living in the multi-storied building, they have to concentrate on comfort in the case of sufficient aeration and ventilation. In India, the Vastu Sastrum is nothing, but it provides the needs of the human livings for their comfort with sufficient light and air.

The climatic factors for a particular day are not similar to previous day. Similarly, definitely the climate of one season is not similar to other season. Man needs some recreation in the comfort climatic areas. So, he/she needs cool climate for stay that necessitate to air conditioner particularly during summer.

INTRODUCTION

Resource, land use patterns and erosion of homrgardens biodiversity have been at the core of the debate on sustainable ecosystem management today. Homegardens are considered as a resource system of multiple functions and an important wheels of vehicle for biodiversity, environmental and ecological benefits, food security (either directly food grains, fruits, vegetables and root crops or indirectly improving soil conditions and there by promoting understory crop productivity especially on degraded sites), soil conservation potential, nutritional security, socio-cultural as well as mitigation of the impact of climate change and job creation in developing and under developed countries. While increasing human population, urbanization and pressure on the earth’s ecosystems, has resulted in the breakdown of these traditional agroforestry systems, accompanied by increasing economic, cultural, nutritional, and environmental problems, there is little awareness that homegardens are under similar threats.

INTRODUCTION
 
A single teaspoon of soil has more organisms than the total number of people in this planet. Therefore measuring microbial population and their activity in soil is essential in order to measure the potential of a soil to mineralize nutrients. The rhizosphere is the biologically active zone of soil, where plant roots and microorganisms interact, and is of significant importance for plant performance as well as for nutrient cycling and ecosystem functioning (Singh et al. 2004; Marschner et al. 2004., Bhaduri et al. 2015). The structure of rhizosphere microbial communities is the result of complex interactions between plant genotype and fertilization (Aira et al. 2010).

INTRODUCTION

The latest Assessment Report (AR-5) of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has concluded that warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and since the 1950s, many of the observed changes are unprecedented over decades to millennia. The report further pointed about the warming of atmosphere and ocean; shrinking of glaciers, sea level rise and more frequent and intense extreme weather events. The most critical information pertains to the increase of the concentrations of greenhouse gases. The report figures that human influence, primarily the burning of fossil fuels, has been the “extremely likely” dominant cause of global warming over the past several decades. Based on the scientific evidences, it is reported “warming by the end of the 21st century will lead to high to very high risk of severe, widespread, and irreversible impacts globally” (Edenhofer et al. 2015).

INTRODUCTION

Biodiversity  refers to varieties of life on the Earth including  animals, plants, microbes and genes within them, their habitats and ecosystems and all variations within a given ecosystem, biome or entire planet. Biodiversity is the basis of life on Earth, important for the functioning of ecosystems, provides us with products and services without which we cannot live. Consider our food range in India. It ranges from Indian bread (chapatti), rice and rice products and related curries and other varieties made out of different vegetables. These food items are made of wheat, paddy, maize, bajra, ragi, potato, tapioca, sweet potato,  yams and corns, pulses like pigeon pea, green and black gram, Bengal gram, soyabean, vegetables like tomato, brinjal, cucumber, pumpkin, drum stick, bitter gourd, snake gourd, bottle gourd and various gourds, French bean, amaranth and  so many leafy  vegetables, spices and condiments like chilly, cardamom, ginger, turmeric, pepper, nutmeg, clove, cinnamon, cumin, coriander, fenugreek etc. This is the diversity of food we have in India. Similarly, all other groups such as herbal medicine, ornamentals, timber and non-timber species are also very diverse.

INTRODUCTION

Indigenous agroforestry systems exhibit a great intricacy with respect to their components where trees, shrubs, climbers and grasses are common. In the north-western Himalaya, farmers maintain naturally regenerating tree/shrub species, particularly on edges of terraced agriculture fields without any significant input of manpower. These systems are called as indigenous agroforestry system (Ram and Singh 1996; Vishvakarma et al. 1998, Thakur et al. 2004 and 2005). Shrubs have been meeting the fuel wood requirement of the local peasants from forest as well as village wasteland and field boundaries. Shrub dominated ecosystems extend from arctic to tropical region and occur over the entire moisture gradient from desert to wetland (Specth 1979; DI Castro 1981; West 1983). 

Introduction

Biodiversity provides enormous direct economic benefits, an array of indirect essential services through natural ecosystems, and plays a prominent role in modulating ecosystem function and stability. It provide farming systems and taxa the means to recycle nutrient, reduce insect, pest and disease problems, control weed, maintain good water and soil conditions, handle climate stresses while producing commodities necessary for human survival. It is estimated that 1400 m ha of croplands and agro-ecosystem may provide ecosystem services worth US$ 92 ha-1 per year in pollination, biological control, and food production amounting to total US $ 128 x 109 per year (Costanza 1997). Moreover, Thrupp (1997) explained several benefits provided through conservation of biodiversity (Figure 1). The animal and plant diversity and the knowledge of associated management of these resources are the assets with the farmers which are important in marginal and difficult farm conditions. Higher diversity allows greater access to available resources, and hence increased net primary production and decreased nutrient losses. Diversity management can constitute a central part of livelihood management strategies of farmers and communities in different production system (Rege et al. 2003). The multifunctional services of biodiversity in amelioration of agro-ecosystems as given in Table 1 have also been emphasized by both the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) and the International Assessment of Agricultural Science and Technology for Development (2008). 

INTRODUCTION

The entire Himalayan region is vast and its diverse geographical grouping is unique and has complex ecosystem and occupies about 18% of the total geographical area of India. Indian Himalaya (27O 50' – 37O 06' N and 72O 30' – 97O 25' E) includes the parts of trans, north-west, west, central and east Himalaya and covers approximately an area of 4,19,873 Km2 with 2500 Km length and 240 Km width. The north-western Himalayas generally represent the Himalayan tract from Kumaon in Uttar Pradesh to Chitral in Gilgit. The Himalayan ranges situated in this region exhibit a diverse climate, topography, vegetation, ecology and land use pattern. The annual average rainfall varies from 8 cm in Ladakh to over 200 cm in some parts of Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. The vegetation may vary from the scrub in the lower hills to arctic in the Greater Himalayas. The unique physiography, climatic conditions and soil characteristics of the area has resulted in a variety of habitats and a significant biological and cultural diversity. Along the altitudinal gradient (300-800 m.a.s.l) the vegetation varies from sub-tropical, temperate, sub-alpine to alpine types. It supports about 8000 species (47.06% of the total flowering plants of India) of which 30% are endemics, 10.2% trees, 8.44% wild edibles and over 15% medicinal (Samant and Dhar 1997).

INTRODUCTION

The terms agro-forestry and farm forestry are used interchangeably in India with respect to the establishment and/or management of trees on farms for productive purposes. It also particularly recognizes the use of trees and shrubs on farms to support agricultural production, protect soil and water resources, enhance biodiversity, sequester carbon, and improve landscape values. Lundgren (1982) defined “Agroforestry as a collective name for land use systems and technologies where woody perennials are deliber-ately used on the same land unit as agricultural crops and/or animals, either in some form of spatial arrangement or temporal sequence. In agroforestry systems there are both economical and ecological interactions between the different components”. It has been proposed that including a tree component within the farming system, either on bunds and boundaries (sequentially with crops) or intercropped in an agroforestry type configuration, can lead to increased land productivity while diversifying the farming enterprise (Atta-Krah et al. 2004; Huxley 1999; Young 1989), and increase economic security for small farmers (Russell and Franzel 2004).

INTRODUCTION

The interactions of plant communities – natural or man-made, with their pests are invariably complex, and the complexity further increases with the diversity of the system. When a farmer adopts agroforestry instead of monocultures, the opportunities of relatively easy monitoring of the pest and their frequent disturbance through crop rotation, tillage and burning are traded against a greater stability of the system with an increased potential for self-regulation, which is however complex and more difficult to control. For this trade to be successful in reducing pest risks, agroforesters should not merely rely on increased diversity, but should attempt to integrate into their decisions the full range of traditional and scientific knowledge on the interactions between plant species, planting designs and management practices on one hand, and pests and their natural enemies on the other hand. This obviously requires collecting knowledge and organizing in more systematic way than up to now.

INTRODUCTION

Phytotoxin literally means “plant poison”; it may refer to any toxin produced by a plant. Phytotoxins generally have allelopathic effect. Allelo-chemicals when added/released to substratum may be directly or indirectly harmful or beneficial to the growth and development of the associated vegetation or to the source plant itself. The definition of allelopathy accepted by the International Allelopathic Society is; “any process involving secondary metabolites produced by plants, algae, bacteria and fungi that influence the growth and development of agricultural and biological systems” (Torres et al. 1996). Allelo-chemicals are defined as bio-communicators suggesting the possibility of active mixtures, because of the findings in which single compounds are not active or are not as active as a mixture (Macias et al. 1998). 

INTRODUCTION

Soil is known to harbour an array of micro-organisms. The soil micro-organisms play vital roles in the half-hidden portion of the plant i.e., the rhizosphere, where they are invariably present and are stimulated by organic substrates supplied by the plant. These are known to form the mutualistic, symbiosis with photosynthetic plants and play a key role in increasing availability of plant nutrients, the improvement of their uptake, the production of plant growth regulators, plant protection against root pathogens etc. in both natural and man-modified eco-systems.

INTRODUCTION

Himachal Pradesh, the mountainous state is well known for its natural wealth. It is situated between 300 22’ 40"to 330 12’ 40" N latitude and 750 45’ 55" to 790 04’ 20" E longitude in the western Himalayas. The 12 districts viz., Bilaspur, Chamba, Hamirpur, Kangra, Kinnaur, Kullu, Lahaul & Spiti, Mandi, Sirmaur, Shimla, Solan, and Una of the state covered 10.5 per cent of the Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) and 1.69 per cent of country’s geographic area. State experienced high variation in an elevation and climatic conditions. An elevation of the stateranged from 350 to 6975 metres above mean sea level (amsl.) that increases from west to east and south to north.On the basis of elevation and slope,the state is divided into fourdistinct topographical regions: (1) Shiwalik Hills, (2) Mountains-Lesser Himalaya, Greater Himalaya and Trans Himalaya, (3) Valleys-Shiwalik dun valleys, fluvial, and glacio-fluvial valleys, and (4) Mountain Passes (Singh and Kumar, 2014). Whereas, physiographically, state is divided into four agro-ecological zones: the Shivaliks’ low, mid and high-hills; and the cold and dry or the alpine zone (Table 1). The 70% of the state area is steep to very steep, about 19% is moderate to moderately steep, and 11% is gentle to nearly level slopes.

INTRODUCTION

Carbon dioxide gas is fundamental to sustaining life on earth for two reasons (i) it is a source of C for photosynthesis, and (ii) it acts like blanket in atmosphere that keeps the earth warm. Molecular CO₂ absorbs short wave solar radiations and release them as long wave infra red radiations. An atmospheric concentration of 300 ppm is adequate to support life on earth. CO₂ accounts for about half of the greenhouse effect. The natural concentration of green house gases (GHGs) has been essential to life on earth, creating the average temperature of 15ºC. Without the naturally occurring green house effect, the average temperature would be minus 18ºC. CO₂ concentration has now reached 400 ppm. If present trends continue then CO₂ levels would reach 600 ppm in 2100 and 1300 ppm in 2200 and level off at 1800 ppm in the year 2400 (Harvey and Danney, 2000). With increasing CO₂ concentration the amount of solar radiation absorbed by atmosphere would increase and make earth warmer. The higher atmospheric temperature can affect global hydrological cycle and alter the distribution and productivity of terrestrial biota. This can have devastating consequences for human life as each 10C increase in temperature, vegetation zones may change dramatically, moving toward the poles by 200-300 km. Further, each 1ºC of global warming will also increase water evaporation, leading to about 2% greater mean global precipitation.

INTRODUCTION

Climate change is one of the most important global environmental challenges facing humanity with implications for food production, natural ecosystems, freshwater supply, health, habitat destruction biodiversity, etc. According to the latest scientific assessment, the earth’s climate system has demonstrably changed on both global and regional scales since the pre-industrial era. Since the very beginning of civilization, land resources have been under tremendous pressure for food and forest products. Anthropogenic activities have affected the biosphere through changes in the landuse and forest management activities, thus altering the natural balance of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The environmental security thus, has become a serious concern across the globe. The meteorological records have shown significant increase in the environmental temperature referred to as the global warming. Human activities have increased green house gases and raised global temperature by 0.50 C over the past 100 yr, which may increase by 1.4 to 5.8°C during the next century (Bhadwal and Singh 2002). Evidence of this global crisis include the rise in global sea levels by 3.4 mm yr-1 ((http://climate. nasa.gov/vital-signs/sea-level/) through the melting of the world’s snow peaks and glaciers, which poses a threat to millions living in coastal areas. A drastic effect on splitting of huge glacier in the Antarctica has already been registered, which has thrown a challenge to save the earth, lest the very survival of the mankind will be jeopardized. Each degree rise in temperature will displace the limits of tolerance of land species some 125 km towards the poles or 150 m vertically on mountains. The Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) estimates that 20 to 30 per cent of plants and animals could be at risk of extinction if average global temperatures reach the projected levels (Hawkes et al., 2000).

INTRODUCTION

Wood has been a source of fuel from time immemorial for human societies. It has been used directly as firewood and also as charcoal. The world today is energy deficient. Energy derived from fossil fuels is costly, unsustainable and its extensive use is polluting the environment. The much talked about phenomenon of ‘Global Warming’ has been ascribed to the higher accumulation of greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere released from the use of fossil fuels and also deforestation. Wood biomass is one of a range of renewable energy resources. It has an advantage over wind and solar energy, for example, as these cannot necessarily deliver power when required. Wood besides being renewable is also a clean and carbon-lean fuel and could play a valuable role in our contribution to climate change mitigation.

INTRODUCTION

Nearly 60% of the population of the country is dependent on agriculture. Rainfed agriculture supports 40% of the population and 75% of the poorest of the poor in the country (Pant 2001). Therefore, maintenance of health of production base stands as a prime goal to be achieved for sustainable production, prosperity and posterity. Tree culture is highly necessitated for amelioration of climate, soil, production of firewood, fodder, timber, fibre, fruit, gum etc. Hence, agroforestry is a viable option particularly in the Indian context.

INTRODUCTION

Medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) play a critical role in the healthcare provision of much of the world’s population, whether they are used to make a decoction in rural Africa, to extract an alkaloid in Switzerland or as a health food supplement in the United States. MAPs are important from several perspectives like preventive and curative treatments and are source of income to underprivileged or aboriginal people who collect these herbal plants from forests or cultivate on their field. The importance and value of traditional and indigenous herbal medicine was the subject of WHO’s campaign during the 70’s, which led to an appeal to all member countries to do their utmost to preserve their national heritage in the form of ethno-medicine and ethno-pharmacology and to re-include the use of known and tested medicinal plants and derivatives into their primary health care in rural areas, as well as an alternative when modern medicine is not available.  Out of more than 400 plants species used for production of medicine by the Indian herbal industry, fewer than 20 species are currently under cultivation in different parts of the country (Uniyal et al. 2000). According to the Department of Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homoepathy (AYUSH), India has 5,662 varieties of medicinal plants and of these trading takes place in 460, while 178 are exported in huge quantities (over 100 metric tonnes per year) and about 70 per cent of India’s population use traditional medicines derived from numerous plant species (Niraj et al. 2002; Saigal et al. 2002). It is estimated that in developing countries, about 90 per cent of medicinal and aromatic plants are harvested from wild while cultivated lands account only for 10 per cent of the total medicinal plants in active trade (Karki 2002). The increasing demand calls for cultivation of these valuable healers on commercial basis. However, the available land cannot be brought directly under MAPs cultivation. There is need to identify the landuse systems, already in practice, which may provide condition congenial for better growth and development of medicinal and aromatic plants as they are naturally getting in the wild. Tree plantations, fruit orchards and home gardens seems to be the viable option for commercial cultivation. Out of these fruit orchards could be more potential land use. Fruit trees have long gestation period of 8-10 years and till canopy development, the interspaces can be conveniently used for cultivation of medicinal and aromatic crops to get additional income. Even at later stages of orchard development trees have minimal adverse affect on the growth and yields of a number of medicinal plants grown as intercrops compared to the yields in the open (Nair et al. 1989), in some instances there may be reduction of yield of MAPs and fruit component, but the combined returns from both the components are greater than from sole cultivation. This temporal scale is even more in case of shade loving medicinal and aromatic plants. Peasants prefer fruit trees on their farms (Raintree 1992; Franzel et al. 1996) with perspective of contribution to consumption (Salam et al. 2000) and income generation (Ayuk et al. 1999; Delobel et al. 1991). Thus, these components are well thought-out to be beneficial due to low labour input and comparatively high returns round the year. This chapter presents a brief review of growth, yield and economic viability of such tree-crop combinations and further explore their potential under fruit tree based horti-medicinal agroforestry systems.

INTRODUCTION

Total forest cover in India is 70.17 million ha or 21.34% of the total geographical area according to the State of Forest Report 2015. Of this, 8.59 million ha (2.61%) is very dense forest, 31.54 million ha (9.59%) is moderately dense and rest of 30.04 million ha (9.14%) is open. The trees outside forest (TOF) are estimated to cover 9.26 million ha area which constitutes about 2.82% of the total geographical area of the country.  Thus the total forest and tree cover of the country is 24.16% of the total geographical area. The estimates of total growing stock of forest and TOF are 4.195 billion m3 and 1.573 billion m3, respectively. The total growing stock of wood in the county is estimated to be at 5.678 billion m3 which implies an average growing stock of 72.63 m3 ha-1 in 79.42 million ha of forest and tree cover (FSI 2016).

INTRODUCTION

The ultimate objective of forest tree breeding is to develop fast growing high yielding genetically improved superior strains in order to replace the wild natural forest stands so as to obtain higher forest productivity per unit area and time. A breeding programme, in fact, involves purposeful management of genetic variability present in a taxon. The variation is regulated through controlled mating. This obviously, needs detailed information on the nature and extent of genetic variation on one hand and equally on the reproductive biology of the species. A clear understanding of phenological behaviour, time of anthesis, time and duration of stigma receptivity, fertilization, mode of pollination, seed development etc. is necessary for attempting crosses between genetically different forms which is invariably involved in the breeding programmes. Although, tree breeding work has been done to a great extent on the temperate species (Devey et al. 2002; Murat et al. 2006; Gotzenberger et al. 2007), no serious efforts were made in the past on tropical forest species including Jatropha (Jatropha curcas), presumably due to the consideration that similar breeding methods may perhaps, be applied to the tropical trees as well. This, however, is not applicable, as the phenological and reproductive features are typical different to each species. It was in this background that the present research article was planned to collect information on floral biology, breeding behaviour and hybridization programme in Jatropha for subsequent application in its genetic improvement.

INTRODUCTION

Promoting agroforestry is a major opportunity to deal with problems related to land-use and CO2-induced global warming (Albrecht and Kandji 2003). As per recent projections, the area of the world under agroforestry will increase substantially in the near future. Undoubtedly, this will have a great impact on the flux and long-term storage of carbon in the terrestrial biosphere (Dixon 1995). Several studies have shown that inclusion of trees in the agricultural landscapes often improves the productivity of systems while providing opportunities to create carbon sinks (Winjum et al. 1992; Dixon et al. 1993; Krankina and Dixon 1994; Dixon 1995). The amount of carbon sequestered largely depends on the structure and function of agroforestry systems - which to a great extent, are determined by environmental and socio-economic factors. Other factors influencing carbon storage in agroforestry systems include tree species and management system. The significance of agroforestry with regards to carbon sequestration and other CO2 mitigating effects is being widely recognized. There are sound reasons to believe that agroforestry can contribute significantly to carbon sequestration. It is important that research attention is focused on this aspect of agroforestry systems (Nair and Nair 2002).

INTRODUCTION
Agroforestry is a land use option that increase livelihood security and reduce vulnerability to climate and environmental change. Agro-forestry has many potential, such as to enhance the overall (biomass) productivity, soil fertility improvement, soil conservation, nutrient cycling, micro-climate improvement, carbon sequestration, bio drainage, bio- energy and biofuel etc. There are many agroforestry systems practiced in India from time immemorial, but the potential of home gardens and their socio-economic significance is very well documented.   Home gardens represent land use systems involving deliberate management of multipurpose trees and shrubs in intimate association with annual and perennial agricultural crops  and livestock within the compounds of individual houses (Fernandes and Nair 1986). Home gardens can also be called as Multitier system or Multitier cropping. Home gardens are highly productive, sustainable and very practicable. Food production is primary function of most home gardens on sustenance basis.

INTRODUCTION

India is endowed with a rich and vast diversity of natural resources. However, increasing demographic pressure, unscientific use of soil and water, rapid industrialization and urbanization are leading to over exploitation of the resources. Prime agriculture lands are being diverted for non-agriculture use. The per capita availability of cultivated land has declined over the years from 0.53 ha in 1950 to 0.32 ha in 2001 and is expected to further reduce to 0.23 ha by 2025 and to 0.09 ha by 2050 (GOI 2011). Owing to population pressure the consumption of fuel-wood and fodder in the country is much higher than what can be sustainably removed from forests. In India, nearly 86 million tonnes of fuelwood is being removed from the forests and plantations every year in excess of what they are capable of producing on sustained basis (Planning Commission 2001). Our rich and bountiful biological diversity is also showing signs of erosion which is affecting the livelihoods of millions of people who are directly or indirectly dependent on it. Further, water is mostly treated as a free commodity in the country which is leading to its unsustainable exploitation. Erosion due to wind and water is also leading to depletion of natural resources. About 5334 m tones of soil is lost (16 t ha-1) due to wind and water erosion annually which is highest in black soils (24-112 t ha-1) followed by Shiwaliks (80 t ha-1) and shifting cultivation (27-40 t ha-1) (Mandal et al. 2008). It is now widely accepted that future of food, livelihood and environmental security depends upon the attention paid to conservation, sustainable development and management of natural resources. Corrective measures are immediately required to check the damage caused to the resource base and environment. 
Traditionally, trees and crops were grown in association with each other on farm lands. The reason was to get multiple outputs from same piece of land, though such systems were exclusively meant for sustenance with little or no commercial intent. As the population increased there was a need to produce more food and hence slowly the tree component vanished from the farmlands and monocropping became dominant. Over a period of time, due to monocropping, soil degradation had been observed. The need of the hour is to accept the trees as an integral part of the farming system to revert soil degradation and erosion and also to reduce the dependence of external inputs in form of fertilizers, pesticides etc. in the production system.
Of late, incorporating trees on the farm lands has been given impetus to get multiple products (fodder, fuel, timber, fiber and fruits) on one hand and resource conservation (soil, water and environment) on the other. Different agencies (institutes, universities and NGO’s) are working on developing region specific agroforestry models to derive maximum advantage of production and conservation from every unit of land. Agroforestry is capable of yielding both wood and food besides conserving and rehabilitating ecosystems. Agroforestry generates high income and minimises risks through efficient utilization of available resources and is thus considered   a potential technology for commercial and protective farming.
The extent of the area under agroforestry is not very clear. Trees outside forests in India is estimated between 14,224 million (Ravindranath and Hall 1995) and 24,602 million (Prasad et al. 2000) which is spread over an equivalent area of 17 million ha (GOI 1999) supplying 49% of the 201 million tonnes of fuelwood and 48% of the 64 million m3 of timber consumed annually by the country (Rai and Chakrabarti 2001). Dhyani et al. (2006) reported 7.45 million ha under agroforestry.  As per one of the estimates, about 27.52 million ha is under various types of tree plantations, which include agroforestry, social forestry, farm forestry and others (Table 1). The task force on Greening India (Planning Commission 2001) has identified a potential of 10 millions ha in irrigated lands and another 18 million ha in rainfed areas that could be developed through agroforestry on watershed basis. 
The present chapter focuses on the advantage of integrating trees on the farm lands in form of agroforestry for natural resource management.

INTRODUCTION

Rajasthan is the largest state of the country with a geographical area of 342,239 Km₂ which constituents 10.41% area of the country. The state can be divided into four major regions; the Western desert with barren hills, level rocky and sandy plains; the Aravalli hills running south west to north-east; eastern plains with rich alluvial soils; and south-eastern plateau. The state has varied climate from semi -arid to arid. The average rainfall in the state ranges from 480 mm to 750 mm, being as low as 150 mm in arid region and 1000 mm in south-eastern plateau (FSI 2009). The recorded forest area is 32,639 Km2 which is 9.54 % of the state’s geographical area. The maximum forests are found in the Districts of Alwar, Banswara, Baran,, Bundi, Chittorgarh, Dhaulpur, Dungarpur, Jhalawar, Kota, Rajasamand, Swaimadhopur, Sirohi and Udaipur. The hot arid and semi-arid regions in the country accounts for 20 % of the country’s geographical area spread over seven states namely Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Karnataka and Maharashtra. It comes nearly 31.63 m ha out of which 19.61 m ha alone is in the states of Rajasthan (62.00 % of total arid region). This area is characterized by low erratic rainfall, high temperature and wind velocity, coarse textured soils with low organic carbon and soil fertility status and poor water holding capacity. The underground irrigation water is limited and highly saline in most of the cases (Chandra 2005). Mono-cropping is a gamble in arid tract of Rajasthan due to low and erratic rainfall and frequent occurrence of drought during crop growth period leading to complete crop failure. To avoid complete crop failure the farmers are adopting mixed cropping system from very ancient time. But the system is not perfect during the adverse climatic situation due to low yield, long duration of traditional varieties and unmatched crop combinations. Therefore, in mixed or multi cropping system, the choice of drought hardy, short duration varieties of crops are necessary to ensure the production of crops even under adverse situations. It has been seen that drought occurrence during month of July and August leads to 67-100 percent decrease in production of pearlmillet and short duration pulses which are the main crops of the region grown under rainfed condition.
The people in arid regions of India, since time immemorial has developed location specific agroforestry systems. The scattered trees /shrubs in the agricultural fields are common features of the landscape. Since the beginning of cultivation the farmers deliberately allowed the trees/shrubs to grow with crops. These trees provided them insurance during drought years and provided fodder, fruits, vegetables, timber, fuel, fiber etc. during lean period.

INTRODUCTION

Agroforestry has long tradition since dawn of the civilization. Farmers and/or land owners integrate different woody perennials in their cropping system along with the animal unit depending upon the physiographic and climatic conditions. It is well proven fact that such adopted systems/practices are location specific and information on such systems is very limited. Therefore, the benefits accrued from such systems are underexploited in comparison to its potential. With depletion of agricultural lands due to shift in rainfall pattern, landslide, run off, regular leaching of nutrients, drying up of natural springs and lack of irrigation facilities have resulted into uneconomical agriculture in the mountain regions of India in general and particular in Jammu & Kashmir. Most of the villages in mountains witness migration on a large scale and lands turning up barren and un-productive. The agroforestry system can provide a viable solution for such problems.

INTRODUCTION

The North-Eastern Himalayas comprise of eastern-Nepal, entire Bhutan, parts of North Bengal and the eight states of North-East India viz. Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Manipur, Sikkim and Tripura. The region is characterised by diverse agro-climatic and geographical situations. This has a predominantly humid sub-tropical climate with hot, humid summers, severe monsoons and mild winters. The total forest covering this part of India is 17.50 m ha (which includes 8 NE states and hills of West Bengal) which is about 65.94 per cent of the total geographical area (FSI 2013), and the rest either under crops or non-agricultural uses or un-cultivated land. The low area under agricultural crops is due to natural corollary of the physiographic features of the region, as major chunk of the land has more than 15 per cent slope, undulating topography, highly eroded and degraded soils, and inaccessible terrain. Continuous depletion of the forest cover in the region due to shifting cultivation, firewood, and timber collection is posing the most crucial problem resulting in poor soil health and the resultant environmental degradation. In order to overcome these problems the farmers of the Eastern Himalaya have evolved various types of crop rotations in consonance with the varied environmental conditions and agronomic requirements with tradition by practising different approaches since ages. These practices so developed through major and minor adjustments in land use strategies are mostly sustainable from ecological point of view (Dash and Mishra 2001). 
The practises of agroforestry in this region exhibit a great deal of variation in crop diversity which is influenced by the crop composition and crop rotation. Along an altitudinal gradient, diversity in agroforestry practices is influenced by variation in ecological factors and difference in agricultural practices. Agroforestry has the potential to improve livelihood as it offers multiple alternatives and opportunities to farmers to improve farm production and income and also provides productive and protective (biological diversity, healthy ecosystems, protection of soil and water resources, terrestrial carbon storage) forest functions to the ecosystems. It is accepted as the sustainable management system that encompasses the variety and variability of animals, plants and micro-organisms which can be combined together to derive key functions of the agro-ecosystem, its structure and processes for, and in support of food production and food security. It is promoted widely as a sustainability-enhancing practice that combines the best attributes of forestry and agriculture. This practice is now recognized widely as an applied science and is instrumental in assuring food security, reducing poverty and enhancing ecosystem resilience at the scale of thousands of smallholder farmers in the tropics (Sharma et al. 2007). Therefore, strengthening linkages between knowledge systems using “Community” participatory management approaches is now seen as critical for sustainable forestry and agroforestry systems (Adhikari et al. 2007; Dhakal et al. 2007; Ramakrishnan 2007). 
The mountain communities of eastern Himalayan regions have also adopted diverse agroforestry systems as their land use. Environmental, biological, socio-cultural and economic variation existing in the eastern Himalayas have led to the evolution of diverse and unique traditional agro-ecosystems, crop species and livestock, which facilitate the traditional mountain farming societies to sustain themselves. Appropriate agroforestry systems have the potential to check soil erosion, maintain soil organic matter and physical characteristics, augment nitrogen build-up through nitrogen fixing trees and promote efficient nutrient cycling (Patiram et al. 2003).These systems have today become an established approach of integrated land management system not only for renewable resource production but also for ecological consideration (Saha et al. 2012).

INTRODUCTION
Over the past two decades climate change has evolved from a debate about whether the planet is really warming to an increased focus on how to mitigate and adapt to its impacts. After an extensive review of the available literature on evidence of climate change, the Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC, 2007 concluded that “the warming of the climate system is unequivocal, as is now evident from observations of increases in global average air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice, and rising global average temperature”. “The scientific evidence is now overwhelming; climate change presents very serious global risks, and it demands an urgent global response” (Stern 2007).

Abstract
Horticulture comprising a variety of fruits, vegetables, ornamental and medicinal crops has emerged in the recent times as a key sector of the Indian economy contributing substantially towards enhanced income, employment and welfare of the rural poor. A visible shift is seen in crop diversification across regions in favour of horticultural crops, especially vegetables over traditional cropping pattern comprising of cereals and pulses, since early 90s. Definitely higher profitability has been identified in comparison to cereals, increased urbanisation, enhanced living standards, besides the growing awareness for balanced nutrition as the main reason for such a shift. Commensurate with this trend has been a visible shift in enhanced R&D investments into horticultural R&D both from the public and private sectors. There is a growing need for the public sector research organisations like ICAR to increase their visibility and promote public private partnerships through innovative methods of research and development at this juncture.

Abstract

The best way to conserve the biological diversity is by involving the local community. It is popularly known as community-based biodiversity conservation (CBC). The conflict between the nature and local communities who have stakes and rights in their territory is a matter of great concern. Likewise, when there prevails the community diversity, what would be the role, participation, share, stake, management issues, equity parameters etc. are the factors that affect CBC. However, CBC is future of conservation of natural resources. It needs adequate focus of community-scale projects on biodiversity conservation implemented by different parties and NGOs. Similarly, empowering community people through adequate financial support and appropriate monitoring and evaluation are the key success factors of community conservation projects. Ethnicity, gender and wealth were the factors that predicted CBC. Hence, the CBC programmes must address these aspects with adequate emphasize. The conflict between human activity and biodiversity conservation, if handled very effectively, will be a productive strategy to highlight pragmatic problems that arise at the field level and creating equitable and sustainable solutions. The general threats as a result of conflict between human activity and biodiversity conservation are agricultural intensification, recreation and human activities and policy related threats. Hence, awareness creation must have an integrative and interdisciplinary approach including the bodies that administer social and natural movements as well as the interests and priorities of local communities. Governing biodiversity conservation measures through political processes by engaging the appropriate representatives has valid implications for the whole process of biodiversity conservation. Alienation of local community, lack of favorable legal framework and lack of addressing the conservation issues through political process may adversely affect the biodiversity conservation as a whole.

Abstract

This paper is intended to focus on importance of Agro-diversity, seed conservation practices, impact of monoculture on biodiversity and connected formal and informal institutions and governance mechanisms. Furthermore this paper explores to discuss the innovation processes, technologies which help in conserving existing diversity, process of evolving newer lines that eventually meet the needs of the farems. Open Source Seed Network (OSSN) would be an organisational platform which consists people engaged in conservation, farmers that can develop Value for Cultivation and Use data for the existing crop varieties in different agro- climatic growing conditions using participatory varietal selection. Farmer breeders engaged in selection and development of newer varieties and Farmers institutions involved in production and marketing of seed to other farmers. Further to elaborate the process the stakeholders will perform the responsibility of conservation and revival of the existing varieties, PVS for generating VCU data, PPB, perform Maintenance Breeding, maintain community seed banks, seed production and marketing. In addition we attempts to focus on mechanisms while making public sector as partners in participatory plant breeding which enable development of locally suitable varieties. An access and benefit sharing mechanism based on an open source model rather than on exclusive rights based is planned for free exchange of germplam within the purview of General Public License for plant Germplasm (GPLGP). This paper emphasise advantages of GPL that prevents exclusive rights, bio piracy, safeguarding farmer derived genetic resources, develop legal/institutional framework that eventually allows farmers to freely exchange, save, improve and sell seeds. In the end this could trigger the emergence of an institutional framework in which farmers and plant scientists work together in plant improvement that contribute to a sustainable food system.

Abstract

The advent of modern chemical industry has resulted in the release of huge amounts of novel organic compounds, as industrial by-products, pesticides, other agrochemicals etc into the environment. These new compounds tend to resist biodegradation, with potential consequences such as persistence in the environment or bioaccumulation in food chains. Early detection of toxic chemical compounds in the environment, particularly in water, and their biological effects on organisms has therefore become increasingly important. The traditional approach to environmental pollution assessment is based on chemical analytical methods which only provide information about the absolute concentrations of known chemicals in the environmental sample without an adequate interpretation of its toxicity to biota. In order to get more relevant information about environmental pollution risk, it is therefore inevitable to supplement the chemical analytical data with the results of methods providing information on biological impacts. The negative biological effects of pollutants present in all kinds of environmental samples can be assessed using different living organisms or cells as ‘analytical devices’. The biological response following the exposure of living organisms or cells to environmental sample usually gives an information on toxicity, genotoxicity, estrogenicity etc. of the whole mixture of chemical compounds. According to the technical principle, methods of biological monitoring can be classified to bioassays, biosensors, immunoassays, and ecological methods. Besides being sensitive only to the bioavailable fraction of pollutants, biotests also have the power to assess the integrated effect of interacting chemical compounds and to detect the compounds, which are toxic only due to bioactivation.

Abstract

India is bestowed with immense richness of agro-biodiversity and a rich diversity in landraces / traditional cultivars/farmers varieties in several Agricultural and Horticultural crops. A huge number of crop plants (384) are reported to be cultivated in India. This includes 168 species earlier reported under the Hindustani centre, one of the eight Vavilovian centers of origin and diversity. Further, an enormous richness (326 species) is reported in wild relatives of crop plants. A total of 49 indigenous major and minor crops have been reported in the “History of Agriculture in India”, published by the ICAR. A large number of cereals, millets, oilseeds and vegetable varieties have originated and are cultivated in India, making it one of the richest Centres of Origin of crop and plant diversity in the world.

Abstract

High Altitude zone is comprised of 40 mandals distributed in parts of Srikakulam, Vishakhapatnam, East Godavari and Khammam districts of Andhra Pradesh covering a geographical area of 1.8 m. ha. The area of this zone lies between 50 to 1680 MSL and is characterized by high slopes, mountains, hills and hillocks as part of Eastern Ghats. Red soils are the most predominant type (94.8%). A small area is covered under alluvial soils and coastal sands. The mean annual rainfall ranges from 1245 to 1288 mm of which about 70 per cent is contributed by southwest monsoon. Large geographical area (58.9%) in the zone is under forests and the net cropped area is only 19.2% with very little irrigation sources. The tribal people of this area practice shifting cultivation locally known as “podu” cultivation for their subsistence. Rice is the most important crop in the zone occupying 36.2 per cent of the gross cropped area of 0.42 m. ha. The other principal crops grown are millets, mesta, niger and tuber crops. Tea, coffee and other plantation crops are also grown in addition to aromatic and medicinal plants. Cropping intensity is 120 per cent. Forest produce such as honey, gum, soap nuts, tamarind fetch income to the tribal people (www.angrau.net).

Abstract

The human race has been dependent on plants for both material and financial needs for millions of years. This has enabled them to evolve a unique system of knowledge on the utilization and conservation of plant genetic resources. Tribals rich traditional knowledge is associated with biodiversity. This knowledge has been acquired over years, treasured and are endowed with and passed on by the local communities and the tribals. Farmers with their age old experience in farming developed a comprehensive knowledge on nutrient content and medicinal properties of various plants. Cereals, small millets, pulses, oilseeds & many more forest plants form important component of food source for the tribal people of North coastal zone of Andhra Pradesh. This knowledge was documented from older generation who could provide age old information about the landraces and traditional life styles which are under threat. This paper briefly describes the extent of knowledge possessed by tribal respondents on Agrobiodiversity in terms of crops and landraces cultivated in selected mandals of Visakhapatnam district. Results indicated low knowledge on landrace of Jowar whereas medium knowledge in case of oilseeds and millets and high knowledge in cereals, pulses and vegetables. This calls for a immediate attention from various stake holders for Agrobiodiversity conservation.

Abstract

Agrobiodiversity is the back bone playing a significant role in food security and sustainable livelihoods. Agricultural systems of India are home to a great diversity of plant species and genetic varieties, but unfortunately these traditional farming systems are facing the danger of extinction today. The present study was conducted from three tribal mandals namely Araku, Paderu and Ananthagiri in Visakhapatnam district of Andhra Pradesh as it is noted as a hub of biodiversity in North coastal zone of Andhra Pradesh. Data was collected by direct interview method and the traditional storage practices for the conservation of agrobiodiversity (landraces) were described.

Abstract

Irrigation tanks (Traditional water harvesting structures) are our heritage handed over to us by our ancestors and are the lifelines of villages. Tanks are small irrigation structures predominantly serve small and marginal farming communities to sustain the agriculture production by supplementing the monsoon rains. There will be festivities in the villages if its irrigation tanks get filled. A proper maintenance of the tanks will prevent famine, starvation and unemployment and bring in prosperity. In most of the Southern states in India, the major threats to tanks are mainly from the encroachers, inefficiency in the functioning of tank system and improper use by the government itself. Tank irrigation in Andhra Pradesh has played a vital role in the development of its agricultural economy. There are around 79,000 small and minor irrigation tanks providing water for irrigation and domestic use, supporting grazing land, fuel wood growth and ground water recharge. Many of these tanks are hydrologically linked in chains (called tank cascades) that cut across administrative boundaries. With deteriorating tank systems, marginal and small farmers are increasingly at the mercy of monsoon and are forced into a cycle of deprivation and debt. These ancient irrigation systems still function as a crucial element in supplying water for agriculture, and they constitute one of the richest sources of wetland biodiversity in the country. A tank system in a cascade has a small reservoir catchment, the reservoir, a strip of trees downstream of the reservoir that act as wind-breaking barrier, paddy fields, and the village. The village tanks play significant role in food production sector and provide employment in the rural sector. In addition to providing irrigation water, the tanks made the micro-climate pleasant and cool, provided a rich biodiversity and agro-biodiversity

Abstract

Pollinators provide key services to both natural and agricultural ecosystems. Agricultural productivity depends, in part, on pollinator populations from adjacent semi natural habitats. Honey bees are the primary pollinators of mustard crop because it is highly attractive to bees and provides both nectar and pollen. Studies were conducted to assess the diversity and relative abundance of pollinators in mustard (Brassica juncea) of 2011-2012 at Apiary Garden, G.B Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar.A total of 19 insect visitors belonging to order Hymenoptera (15) and Diptera (4) were found to visit the mustard blossoms. Hymenopteran visitors belonged to six families namely Apidae (6), Scollidae (3), Xylocopidae (1), Halictidae (2), Magachilidae (1), Anthophoridae (1) and Sphecidae (1). Lepidopteran visitors belonged to families Pieridae (1). Besides this some Dipteran visitor belonged to families these were Syrphidae (3) and Muscidae (1) were observed on mustard flowers. From the family Apidae, honeybees (Apis mellifera, Apis dorsata, Apis cerana indica and Apis florea), Ceratina sexmaculata, Xylocopa iridipennis and stingless bee Tetragonula laeviceps family Apidae. Scolia (Discolia) binolata, Campsomeriella collaris and C. annulata of family Scollidae, the Alkali Bees (Nomiasp.) and Halictussp. of Halictidae, Leaf cutter bee (Megachile disjuncta) of Megachilidae, the digger bee (Anthophorasp.) of Anthophoridae and Sphex sp. of Sphecidae. Three species from family Syrphidae (Syrphus corollae, Episyrphus valtiatus and Eristalis tenax) and one species from Muscidae (Musca domestica) visited the mustard flowers. The abundance (percentage of insect/m2/2min.) of Hymenopterans were maximum (79.97 %) followed by the Dipterans (16.15 %) and others (3.73 %). In Hymenopterans, the honeybees (Apis bees) were observed maximum (57.55 %) followed by non Apis bees (21.06 %) and the scolid wasp (1.35 %).

Abstract

Indigenous chickens play vital role in sustainable rural development by providing livelihood and nutritional security to the rural and tribal people. However, indigenous chickens in the country increasingly face the threat of their replacement or erosion in their genetic diversity due to introduction of exotic or improved chickens to enhance productivity of backyard poultry production. Therefore, it becomes imperative to improve the growth and productivity of indigenous chickens in order to make the rearing of indigenous chickens economically attractive proposition. Aseel is one of the important indigenous breeds of chicken that is being conserved and improved for growth and egg production at Directorate of Poultry Research (DPR), Hyderabad. The averageegg production of improved Aseel chickens recorded in a laying cycle of 72 weeks of age was 150.3±5.63with an average egg weight of 48.66 ±0.34g. The average body weights of male and female birds recorded at 72 weeks of age were 3156 ± 27.4 and 2133±36.1 g, respectively while corresponding shank lengths were 135.23±0.7 and 104.9±0.4 mm. Another indigenous chicken germplasm, Ghagus-ecotype was collected from border area of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh at Kolar district and is being characterized and conserved at DPR. The comparative growth performance of these indigenous chickens was also studied under similar management conditions. It was observed that the growth and egg production of improved Aseel breed was significantly higher than the Ghagus-ecotype chickens. The improved Aseel breed with its better growth and production performance appears to be a promising indigenous chicken for sustainable rural poultry production.

Abstract

Determining the optimum stocking rate for a grazing land is a key decision affecting the profitability and viability of a grazing system. Forage intake and subsequent performance is dependent on forage availability to the livestock on a daily basis.
Fixing stocking rate too low results in wastage of forage and loss in profit and too high results in lowered forage intake and livestock output thus results in diminished profits. Overgrazing occurs when the grazing pres-sure exceeds the carrying capacity of the land and would modify the physical properties of soil and ecosystem. Due to the overuse of the grazing land, vegetation cover declines and thus reduces the soil organic matter content and soil infiltration capacity. On farm field experiments were conducted in three farmer’s fields at dryland tracts of Tirupur district for a period of two years from September, 2009 to March, 2011 with the objective to assess the carrying capacity of silvipastoral farming system. Treatments were five silvipastoral systems viz.,Acacia leucophloea + Cenchrus ciliaris, Acacia leucophloea + Cenchrus ciliaris + Stylosanthes hamata, Acacia leucophloea + Cenchrus setigerus + Stylosanthes hamata, Acacia leucophloea + fodder sorghum + Pillipesara and Acacia leucophloea + Cenchrus setigerus + Stylosanthes hamata & fodder sorghum + Pillipesara. One unit of Mecheri sheep of five ewes (female) and one ram (male) and two buffaloes were maintained in each location. Observations on carrying capacity, annual forage yield, utilization rate, average daily intake and average fodder requirement of sheep and Length of grazing season were made. The experimental results revealed that, among the different silvipastoral systems, rotational grazing of 39 numbers of sheep per ha of silvipasture land with Cenchrus setigerus + Stylosanthes hamata & fodder sorghum + Pillipesara system is found to be the best. This would imply relatively less pressure on land that would indicate sustaining the carrying capacity of grazing land without exerting pressure on natural resources.

Abstract

Camelids across the world are reared for milk, meat, draught, race and tourism. Camelids are also the source of world’s finest natural fibre. They are distributed in the South American, African, Arabian and Asian countries. Apart from this a feral population exists in Australia and recent reports indicate that a few animals of the species are also being reared in Europe. Camel (Camelus dromedarius) is the predominant species of the camelids. The world camel population shows an increasing trend with 12.92 m in 1961 to 26.63 m in 2011 producing 0.42 m tonnes of meat and 2.11 m tonnes of milk per annum. The top 20 camel rearing countries produce both milk and meat with the exception of India and Pakistan as per FAO data. There are about 83 populations of the dromedary camels in the world spread mainly across African and Asian countries. There are about 3.04 m Alpacas in world with Huacaya and Suri as the two main populations and 3.24 m Llamas with Chaku and Kara as the two main populations. The Guanaco population in the world is about 0.5 m and that of Vicuna is 0.35 m. The wild Bactrian camels are around a thousand but the domesticated Bactrian camels are about 0.6 m. The Alpaca and Bactrian camel genome has been sequenced whereas the expressed sequence tags of the Dromedary are available in the public domain. A brief account of evolution, present status and conservation of camelids is discussed.

Abstract

The Arabian camels are well known for their existence and adaptation to the desert geo-climatic situations. Their service to mankind in the difficult terrains of the earth for transport and baggage is also well documented in the literature and has clear reflection in society through art and culture. The existence and adaptation of single humped camels in hilly terrains of India is not very much known, but there exists a population of camel in the hills of erstwhile Mewar state of southern Rajasthan and adjoining area. Based on the locality these camels are known as Mewari camels and are well adapted to travel and carry loads across hills. Phenotypically the Mewari camels are stouter and off-white to light brown in colour. Molecular characterization also distinguishes it from other major breeds of camel. The Mewari camels are mainly reared for milk production. In recent study, it was found that of the total camel population with camel milk producers, about 31% are in-milk female camels. On an average about 2.8 litres of milk per milking female is being sold in the market everyday. Assuming that the camel population in the tract has gone down by 25% of its level of the year 2007 and the current survey figures are utilized for extrapolation, the population of camels in the breeding tract comes to 10408 with 4335 breedable females and 3226 female camels in milk. Accordingly, thousand lactating camels are producing 2800 litres of milk per day or 1022 tonnes per annum and are exclusively meeting the milk requirement of 10,000 persons at present level of per capita availability of milk in the country i.e. 276 gm per day. If the production potential of superior animals of the breed is utilized, the per day production from a female camel can be gradually increased to 6 litres or even more as the the best animals produce an average yield of 10 litres of milk per day during a lactation period of 16 months. Thus with 1000 she camels presently meeting the milk requirement of 10,000 people, may meet the milk requirement of 20,000 people by selecive breeeding. With proper policy support, if more she camels can be covered, the population covered can be increased proportionately. The increase in milk production is expected to increase per capita milk availability in the deficient districts and thus may assist us in ensuring nutritional security of the people of the region. Consequently, the increased milk production may further ensure better returns to the camel owners and thus strengthening the livelihood and conserving the camel populations in situ.

Abstract

In the present study, the village chicken rearing practices were documented in Kannur and Kozhikode districts of Kerala. A total of 128 native chicken farming households were surveyed. The system of management is extensive backyard type with the provision of shelter at night. Around 90% of the farmers had more than five years of continuous experience in village chicken farming. Majority (73.4%) of chicken present in this region was either reproduced within the household from earlier generations or added from the neighbourhoods of the same Panchayat. Most of the farmers (68.8%) consider that chickens are reared for both egg and meat; while, others (31.3%) deem that they are meant for eggs alone. As many as 87 % of the farmers cull the surplus males before one and half years of age. In contrast, majority of farmers (78.1%) do not cull female birds and usually maintain them till their death.

Abstract

Local breeds of livestock represent embodiment of evolutionary wisdom fully in tune with ecosystem and able to produce and reproduce in spite of the prevalent hardships and shortages. Indigenous breeds survive and produce where others fail. Each of the recognized 144 indigenous breeds of livestock (covering cattle, sheep, yak etc.) has its unique qualities - some known and some yet unknown - but central to all features is ‘efficiency of production’ by local breeds. A breed in its own habitat makes the most efficient production system; under the same prevalent input system, any other breed from outside would not perform as efficiently. Another valuable common feature of the local breeds is their sustainability of survival and production. Production level may be medium as the animal has to spend energy in order to gain adaptability to high ambient heat, tolerance to drought, resistance to the prevalent diseases and be able to retain capability to digest low quality feed fodder which itself is not sufficiently available. In spite of such hardships, the local breed continues to survive and successfully procreates to sustainably maintain the production system over generations and thereby providing livelihoods to marginal people leading to inclusive growth. Innate features of sustainability of the local breeds provide sustainability to local livelihoods as well. It is noted that the livestock in its entirety, but especially the indigenous breeds proper, have the multifarious capability to provide livelihoods to our rural masses, infuse sustainability to animal-agriculture, and facilitate inclusive development by targeting and supporting the marginal people in the country.

Abstract

India is a country of villages (640930 villages) and 68.84% population of India is living in villages as per the All India Census, 2011. Dairy farming has been complementing the Indian agriculture since ancient times and rearing of livestock for milk/milk products and draft power has been the tradition of ancient India. Majority of the stake holders are from local communities, particularly pastoralists, have been using their traditional knowledge system for rearing the native breeds. The systematic breeding of cows over the centuries has led to the development of as many as 37 cattle breeds in India. Breeds like Sahiwal, Red Sindhi, Gir, Kankrej, Tharparkar and Rathi are mostly reared for milk production. The number of the animals of majority of indigenous breeds has declined over the years attributed to crossbreeding. Further, their number is very low and majority of cattle population (80%) in India is non-descript. However, considering the importance of indigenous cattle, some of the breed improvement programs have been initiated to conserve and multiply these breeds.

Abstract

Crop diversity play important role of sustainable development. A study on crop diversity in Andhra Pradesh was conducted during 2010-2011. In Andhra Pradesh, cultivated crop plant species resulted in augmentation of 140 species belonging to 132 genera and 46 families. The maximum species strength was observed in the Rayalaseema region (127 species belonging to 120 genera and 43 families), followed by Telangana region (125 species belonging to 114 genera and 43 families) and parts of Coastal Andhra region (118 species belonging to 103 genera and 46 families). Species richness was predominant in cultivated crops like vegetable crops (31 species belonging 25 genera and 12 families), Fruit crops (25 species belonging 18 genera and 14 families), commercial crops (23 species belonging 23 genera and 15 families) and Leafy vegetables (12 species belonging 12 genera and 8 families). The maximum species richness in families was found in Fabaceae (16 genera and 19 species), followed by Poaceae (14 genera and 16 species), Cucurbitaceae (11 genera and 14 species), Asteraceae (7 genera and 7 species) and Apiaceae (5 genera and 5 species). The present and the past similar studies observed that many more native species remain in agriculture than previously thought, under the right conditions. There is a need to establish mechanisms of control on introduction of exotic species in natural habitats. We also need to strengthen the legislation on the use of biodiversity and to establish a research programme of the economic potential of local flora and fauna as an alternative to introduction of exotic species to safeguard our traditional crop diversity.

Abstract

The genetic divergence among 249 germplasm lines of maize was assessed by D2statistics based on nine parameters at Agricultural Research Station, Karimnagar. The germplasm lines were grouped into eleven clusters. Clusters I and II were the largest clusters with 73 and 79 genotypes, respectively. The highest inter cluster distance was observed between cluster X and XI followed by cluster V and XI indicating more variability in the genetic makeup of inbreds included in these clusters. Cluster V showed highest mean values for grain yield/plant and ear length. Cluster XI had the lowest mean values for plant height and ear height and these two characters showed maximum contribution towards total divergence among different characters. Based on inter cluster distances, inter crossing among the genotypes belonging to cluster V, IX, X and XI has the chance of getting high yielding hybrids with higher heterosis.

Abstract

The present investigation on “Agro bio-diversity and genetics of fibre characters, yield and its components in intra and inter specific hybrids of allo-tetraploid cottons (Gossypiumspp. Linn.)” was carried out at College Farm, College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, to study the combining ability and heterosis for quality and yield characters. Further, an attempt was made to trace out best parents and crosses for future breeding programmes and also to know the gene action controlling the traits through generation mean analysis for designing appropriate breeding strategy. In this direction, seven lines and four testers were crossed in L x T design to generate 28 hybrids and evaluated with check NHH 44 to know the combining ability of parents and crosses. Since L x T design does not provide comprehensive picture on gene action governing the traits, the generation mean analysis through joint scaling test was done in four crosses for eleven characters. High PCV and GCV were recorded for number of monopodia per plant and seed cotton yield per plant and moderate estimates were observed for number of bolls per plant, boll weight. High heritability estimates coupled with high genetic advance were observed for number of bolls per plant, boll weight and seed cotton yield per plant. Estimates of components of variance and their ratios (?2 gca/?2 sca) indicated the preponderance of non-additive gene action for days to 50 % flowering, number of monopodia per plant, number of sympodia per plant, number of bolls per plant, boll weight and seed cotton yield per plant, whereas additive gene action was observed for the fiber quality traits viz., 2.5 % span length, uniformity ratio, micronaire value and bundle strength.

Abstract

Rice is the staple and principle food of about half the human race and is often the main source of calories. Navara is a unique rice cultivar indigenous to Kerala, gifted with extra short growth duration. It is mainly used for the preparation of Navara kizhi, which is an effective remedy for rheumatic complaints, neuro muscular disorders and body rejuvenation. It is traditionally given as a supplementary diet to the under-weight and also consumed as a replenishing drink called ‘Karkadaka kanji’ during the monsoon season along with certain other herbal medicines.Despite the Navara is known for its special medicinal attributes to the producers, consumers and other actors of the value chain, there is a declining trend of Navara rice cultivation noticed (2000 acres to less than 50 acres) in the state (The Hindu, November 28, 2010), which entails the loss of biological and cultural diversity associated with this unique rice.The study attempted to identify and analyze the actors involved in the value chain of Navaraon the conservation perspective. The primary data required to analyze actors in the value chain were collected from the farmers, input suppliers, processors, retailers and consumers of Palakkad, through key informant method, focused group discussion, and structured interview schedules and analysed through Value chain mapping tool and SWOT analysis. The secondary data regarding the rice and its properties were collected from websites and publications. The study revealed that the cultivation of Navarashould be purely organic to preserve its medicinal value. The cultural practices except ploughing, such as weeding, manuring, harvesting etc. are done manually. Application of chemical fertilizers will increase the vegetative growth of Navaraand subject to lodging of plants and at the same it also affects the quality of rice.

Abstract

Many people’s food and livelihood security depend on the sustained management of various biological resources that are important for food and agriculture. Agro biodiversity is the result of the interaction between the environment, genetic resources and management systems and practices used by culturally diverse peoples. The management of agro biodiversity by the indigenous communities is for a variety of reasons. The land use types, land use stages, aspect, soil fertility, availability of water and quality seed of crops etc. are essential variables which an indigenous farmer considers while cultivating a diversity of traditional landraces in the farm for food security. India is the largest producer of many kinds of millets, which are often referred as coarse cereals. However, realizing the nutrient richness of these grains they are now considered as nutria-cereals. Small millets, as a group includes several grain crops namely finger millet (ragi), proso millet, barnyard millet, italian millet, kodo millet and little millet. In the four decades since 1961, the area under millets declined by nearly 50% from about 18 million hectares to about 9 million hectares. During this time, production of millets declined from about 8.8 million tons to about 7.2 million tons; a decline of 18%. Tremendous decrease in area and production is directly or indirectly resulted in the loss of agro biodiversity of these crops as these crops are grown on marginal or rainfed areas without any fertilizers. Therefore, more emphasis should be given for maintaining bio diversity of these highly rich crops by increasing area under these minor millets and developing proper agro techniques for increasing its productivity.

Abstract

A profile study of organic pigeonpea growers was conducted during 2007-08 in Gulbarga district of Karnataka state. Two taluks namely, Gulbarga and Jewargi were selected based on highest area under organic pigeonpea cultivation. One hundred twenty respondents were selected with simple random sampling procedure, to know (1) the practices followed by farmers in organic pigeonpea cultivation and (2) the forward linkage activities followed by organic pigeonpea growers. The study revealed that majority of respondents (63.33 %) had medium level knowledge about organic pigeonpea farming practices, with regard to individual organic farming practices, majority of respondents had knowledge about the practices like recommended seed rate (81.60%), recommended sowing time (98.33 %), application of FYM (100%), crop rotation (96.67%), pheromone traps (98.33%), NPV (100%) and NSKE (100%). With regard to post harvest operations, cent percent of respondents graded the produce manually and jute bags used to store the produce, whereas, 71.67% of the respondents sold later when price was suitable in regulated market (90.00%) through commission agents (77.50%) and got price information by personnel visit/phone call to regulated market (81.67%) and others who visited the market (68.33%). But no farmer certified the produce and sold at premium price. With regards to personal characteristics, majority of respondents (31.62 %) were illiterate, 59.17 per cent were had joint family, 61.17 per cent were having low farming experience, 60.83 per cent of respondents were big land holders and 69.17 per cent of respondents possessed medium level of scientific orientation.