eChapters

Objectives
• Understand the stages of the writing process.
• Visualize the flow of writing stages using a graph.
• Apply effective strategies for each stage of writing.
Introduction
The writing process is a structured approach that helps writers create clear and coherent texts. It generally consists of five main stages: prewriting, drafting, revising, editing, and publishing. The stages are interconnected, and writers often cycle back to earlier steps before finalizing their work. The following graph will help visualize how these stages overlap and repeat during the writing process.
Graph of the Writing Process
The graph below represents the cyclical nature of the writing process:

Writing funded project proposals involves crafting detailed documents tailored to specific purposes, such as consulting project proposals or sponsored research projects. For instance, a consulting project proposal emphasizes understanding a client's needs, offering solutions, and outlining services to address those needs effectively. On the other hand, sponsored research proposals focus on academic or scientific exploration, detailing methodologies, expected outcomes, and potential impacts within a scholarly context.

Report writing is the process of creating a structured document that conveys information, findings, analyses, or recommendations on a specific topic or event. It involves gathering data, organizing it logically, and presenting it in a clear, concise, and formal manner tailored to the needs of a specific audience. The purpose of a report can range from providing insights and informing decisions to documenting progress or offering solutions to problems.
Importance of Report Writing
Report writing plays a vital role in various fields, including academics, business, research, and government. Its importance can be summarized as follows:
1. Effective Communication: Reports provide a formal means to convey ideas, findings, and analyses. They ensure information is communicated clearly and concisely to specific audiences, making it easier to understand and act upon.
2. Facilitates Decision-Making: Well-structured reports present data and insights that support informed decision-making. For example, business reports can guide strategic planning, while research reports help policymakers develop evidence-based strategies.
3. Accountability and Transparency: Reports serve as documentation that holds individuals or organizations accountable for their actions, progress, or outcomes. For instance, financial reports detail the allocation and use of resources, ensuring transparency.
4. Record Keeping and Reference: Reports act as permanent records of activities, events, or research. They provide historical data that can be referenced in the future for audits, evaluations, or comparisons.

Introduction

Precise learning of the components of the general structure of a research article is inevitable in writing a research article. The general structure of a research article consists of Title, Abstract, Keywords, Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion, Conclusion, Acknowledgements, References and Supporting materials. There are no specific guidelines for which one of the above should be written first.

Process of Writing - Building the Article

To start writing a research article, it is not advisable to consider all the tables and data that are available to the writer. The easiest way to start with is to choose the tables and data that can be used wisely in the paper. The writer should be aware of the types of the chart or table which are accepted and the number of charts and tables that should be included in the paper (generally a research paper contain 7 to 9 figures and charts in each category). It is also not recommended to use conventional ways of presenting data and figures (like bar charts, pie diagram). The figures or illustrations should not be so simple. Figures and Tables should be self-communicating. The reader of the paper is very well educated and may have mastery in the particular subject. The language and illustration should be appealing to them. The figures and illustrations should have an impact on the reader to think and draw inference from the data provided by the research. Two dimensional and three dimensional data presentation create more interest in the reader rather than the one dimensional presentations. Next to consider is Methods that explain how the data was collected. In case of writing the methods in research paper, unlike thesis, the methods need not be elaborated in the paper. Results are the description of the data and the broad observation made. Results should not contain the inferences that are already known. Results should be supplementing the tables and charts, not a description of them. Discussion involves the comparison of the obtained result and the previous results. The contribution to the previous research results can be discussed. New findings and solutions can also be discussed. Conclusion is a single paragraph which altogether summarizes the final outcome. Generally the conclusion should not contain citations.

Importance-Effective writing -Components of writing : Introduction , Audience and format, Composition and style, Structure, Grammatical errors, Proofing and Conclusion-Ways to improve writing skills -Technical writing.

A written communication is always put into writing and generally used when the audience is at a distance or when a permanency or record is required or where its preservation is essential in case it is needed as a evidence in cases of dispute. It is generally in the form of instruction, orders, rules and regulations, policies, procedures, posters, memos, reports information bulletins.

Importance of writing skills

1. Expression

Writing is one of the important ways of expressing your thoughts, and communicating ideas and views to others. Some have the innate ability to put their thoughts into words. Writing is more beneficial, specifically for those who are emotional, and do not express verbally. This tool allows them to express their ideas, thoughts or their existing mental condition, which otherwise, may not be possible. People express themselves by writing novels, short stories, biographies and even personal diaries, etc.

2. Judgment of a person

Often, a person is judged by the quality of writing, he/she possesses. Be it a school, college, workplace or a society, writing has become a vital yardstick to assess one’s knowledge and intellectuality. When we come across a person who is prim and proper, we immediately make an impression about that person being careful, responsible and sincere. Similarly, if the writing is devoid of mistakes, we tend to create a good impression about the writer.

Objectives
• Understand the concepts of precise writing, abstracting, and summarizing.
• Develop skills for condensing complex information effectively.
• Learn the essentials of the style of technical communication.
• Apply these writing techniques in various professional and academic settings.
Writing Skills
Writing skills, particularly in the professional and academic environment, are essential for communicating complex ideas clearly and concisely. Three important forms of condensing information are precise writing, abstracting, and summarizing, each serving a distinct purpose in effective communication. Alongside these, the style of technical communication plays a crucial role in ensuring that the information is communicated in a clear, structured, and efficient manner.
Precise Writing
Precise writing involves shortening a lengthy passage or document by conveying the core message without losing essential meaning. It requires understanding the main ideas, removing unnecessary details, and reconstructing the text in a concise form.

Fundamentals of writing farm stories

1. Use of plain and simple language: A farm journalist would have translated technical terms into their plain language.

2. Presentation of novel ideas: People are open to new concepts that are logically explained and will increase their return on investment as a whole.

3. Keep the message brief and to the point so that farmers can recall it. The information should be focused on the benefits that can be attained without using an excessive amount of wording.

4. Use of visuals: Visuals add interest, are more memorable, and have deeper significance. A statement is more understandable and pleasing to the eye when there are more visuals present.

5. Farmers are very receptive to messages that are recent, reliable, realistic, and relevant (the “4Rs”).

6. The audience appreciates and accepts the message that is centred on their environment, locations, and selves.

What so ever you are doing as a researcher, one important task is to publish the same for scientific fraternity for establishing your view points else no body will recognize you and your competence. Your credentials are judged by the research papers published by you and its impact on scientific community. Therefore, it is must to publish what so ever you are doing to establish yourself in the scientific community and also to advance science. This implies to select a national or international journal for your research publication which has wide scientific circulation so that peers of scientific world may observe your publication. Adversely, the publication may bring you criticism if it does not stand on scientific parameters and you may lose your reputation in your profession.

16.1. World Trade Organization (WTO)

Only global international organization dealing with rules of trade between nations.

Location: Geneva, Switzerland

Established: 1 January 1995

Created by: Uruguay Round negotiations (1986-94)

Membership: 164 members representing 98% of world trade

Budget: 197 million Swiss Francs for 2018

Secretariat staff: 625

Head: Roberto Azevêdo (Director-General)

The Agreement on Agriculture, the AoA, was negotiated to cover loopholes in the agriculture sections of the original GATT and was signed in April 1994 at Marrakesh, Morocco. Its first step was to get all countries to replace the various quota and other non-tariff restrictions on agricultural imports with equivalent-level tariffs; then countries would progressively cut those tariffs (by 36% over six years for developed countries, 24% over 10 years for developing countries). Restrictions were also mandated in other areas, such as export subsidies and in the AMS, the “aggregate measure of support”, which measured all the assistance going to a country’s farm sector. However, developing countries already had low levels of agricultural support, while developed countries had very high levels, meaning the field was still tilted in favour of the rich countries.

The WTO’s Agreement on Agriculture which came into effect on 1^st January 1995 brought world agriculture production and trade under multilateral trade rules. It was supposed to herald a new era of trade liberalization in the agriculture sector, as hitherto agriculture had been mainly exempted from the disciplines of GATT.

X-efficiency : Producing output at the minimum possible cost. This is not enough to ensure the best sort of economic efficiency, which maximises society’s total consumer plus producer surplus, because the quantity of output produced may not be ideal. For instance, a monopoly can be an X-efficient producer, but in order to maximise its profit it may produce a different quantity of output than there would be in a surplus-maximising market with perfect competition.

X-ray scattering techniquesarea family of non-destructive analytical techniques which reveal information about the crystallographic structure, chemical composition, and physical properties of materials and thin films. These techniques are based on observing the scattered intensity of an X-ray beam hitting a sample as a function of incident and scattered angle, polarization, and wavelength or energy.

ABSTRACT

Medicinal plants are known to contain innumerable bioactive compounds that play an important role in conventional as well as western medicine. These bioactive molecules occur in plants as secondary metabolites, which have pharmacological relevance and aid in defense mechanism. In India, herbal medicines have been the basis of treatment and cure for various diseases. Conventionally, natural products have been tested as crude extracts containing complex mixtures of compounds, which if showing a desired activity, require a process of purification and identification of the active components, which can be lengthy and efficient.

In order to understand the function of these active compounds, X-ray crystallographic studies are carried out.

The present study involves the three dimensional structure analysis of purified compounds from the plants Phyllanthus amarus, Sphaeranthus indicus, Scoparia dulcis and Mangifera indica and Leonotis nepetaefolia.

14.1 Principles of X-ray Diffraction

Any crystalline structure is characterized by a regular and systematic arrangement of atoms (or ions) in a three-dimensional array. Since crystals are composed of regularly spaced atoms or ions, each crystal contains planes of atoms or ions separated by a constant distance which is the characteristic of that crystalline species.

X-rays are essentially electrostatic and electromagnetic fields oscillating in planes perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation in periodic cycles. X-rays having wavelengths in the order of 10^-3 to 10¹ nm, are produced within a vacuum x-ray tube by bombardment of a metal anode with high-velocity electrons. High-velocity electrons transfer their energy to the electrons of metal anode causing their elevation to higher energy level (excited state). Excited electrons of metal atom soon come back to the vacant shell and each electron transfer from higher to lower energy state results release of a quantum of energy (x-ray photon) equivalent to the difference in energy between these two levels. The energy and the wavelength of emitted x-ray photons are finite and characteristic of the particular atoms of the metal anode used in x-ray tube. Usually, photons generated due to electron transfer from L-shell to K-shell are used for x-ray diffraction analysis.

Diffraction of x-ray involves scattering of x-rays by planes of atoms of the crystal separated by definite distance and reinforcement of scattered rays in definite direction away from the crystal. Reinforcement of scattered rays is quantitatively related to the distance of atomic planes in a crystal as defined by Bragg’s equation:

Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen, German physicist, born on November 8, 1895 discovered X-rays and was awarded the first ever Nobel Prize in Physics in 1901 in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by the discovery of the remarkable rays subsequently named after him. These short-wave electromagnetic radiations have the wavelengths that are matching with both the atomic sizes and shortest interatomic distances. But, the index of refraction of X-rays is near unity for all materials and hence they could not be focused by a lens in order to observe small objects such as atoms, as it is done by glass lenses in a visible light microscope or by magnetic lenses in an electron microscope. Thus, in general, X-rays cannot be used to image individual atoms directly. As an alternative to this difficulty, Max von Laue in 1912 proved that the periodicity of the crystal lattice allows atoms in a crystal to be observed with exceptionally high resolution and precision by means of X-ray diffraction for the first time by using a single crystal of hydrated copper sulfate (CuSO₄ 5H₂O).

The X-ray film is the major element that record the image of part exposed with X-rays. Although the situation is changing with the introduction of new technologies in recent years. The film can be exposed by the direct action of X-rays, but more commonly the X-ray energy is converted into light by intensifying screens and this light is used to expose the film. The X-ray film is somewhat similar to photographic film in its basic composition. However unlike photographic film, the light (or radiation) sensitive emulsion is usually coated on both sides of the base of X- ray film so that it can be used with intensifying screens. Because of its importance to medicine, X-ray film is manufactured with consistent uniformity and quality, which facilitates standardization of exposure and processing.

    1.    X-ray beam collimators: Comprised of 2 independently-acting sets of adjustable lead shutters. These are the devices made of lead and are used to restrict X-ray beam up to a desire area. In diagnostic radiology they are essential for safety of the patients, and persons and also to prevent fogging of films due to unnecessary radiations. The collimator is the most effective of beam limiting devices.

A tube rating chart is a guide regarding operational limits of the X-ray tube for single and multiple exposures and permissible heat load of the anode and the tube housing. It is an essential component for obtaining diagnostic X-ray examinations is a consistent way.
 
The tube rating chart provides important information on the maximum safe exposure time that can be used with specific mA and kV setting. If lower than designated exposure times are used, tube damage may occur. The size of the anode focal spot determines the rating of the tube because size controls the amount of energy it can absorbs and convert into X-rays and heat. Therefore, one should never use an X-ray chart formulated for another X-ray machine (even those made by the same manufacture) without making appropriate changes. Knowledge of three charts is important to extend tube life and includes tube rating chart, anode heat cooling chart and housing cooling chart.

    ·    An X-ray tube is an energy converter. It receives electrical energy and converts it into two other forms: X-radiation and heat.

    ·    It is a source of X-rays used in diagnostic radiology.

    ·    Designed and constructed to maximize X-ray production and to dissipate heat as rapidly as possible.

    ·    It is a thermo ionic diode type electronic vacuum tube where X-rays are produced.
 
    ·    A basic element of an X-ray tube (Figure) consists of the cathode, anode, glass tube and tube housing.

Xanthophylls (Carotenoids): These are tetraterpenes with general formula C₄₀H₅₆O₂. Xanthophylls are a class of oxygen-containing carotenoid pigments, responsible for the color of many of the yellow, orange, and red hues of flowers, fruits, vegetables (corn, pepper, etc.), egg yolks, and feathers, shells, or flesh of many animal species (flamingo, canary, shrimp, lobster, chicken, or salmonids). In plants, they are involved in photosynthesis with chlorophyll and are responsible for the red, yellow, and/or brown colors of autumn foliage as the chlorophyll levels decline.

Xeromorphy: Morphological characteristics, such as small, tough leaves, a heavy cuticle, etc., that are generally important for adaptation to dry environmental conditions.

Xanthium strumarium L. (Asteraceae): Eng.- Common Cocklebur; Kash.- Tcheere [W]. An annual herb usually inhabiting disturbed soils. Leaves simple, alternate. Flower heads are borne in leaf axils and have disc florets only.

χ^2-test: The χ² test (chi square test) is based on the assumption of normality. The χ^2-test is based on chi-square distribution and as a non-parametric test, it is used for comparing a sample variance to a theoretical population variance.

Xanthan gum: It is a polysaccharide that is produced by fermentation of carbohydrates by a gram-negative bacterium (Xanthomonas campestris) and is a thickening and suspending agent used in pharmaceuticals and prepared foods. It is also called xanthan. Xanthan is a stabilizer produced by Xanthomonas compestris (Plate 671). Xanthan is not hydrolysed or degraded by humans.

Xanthones: It is a group of yellow pigments e.g. mangiferin in mango,

Xanthophyll: Yellow hydroxyl carotene derivative which is present in all green leaves together with chlorophyll and carotene. Xanthophyll is a pigment containing O2 derived from carotene (Plate 672).

Xerophilous: An organism which is thriving in or tolerant to a xeric environment is called xerophilous.

Xanthan gums: Gums produced by the bacterium Xanthomonas campestris. These gums are exo-polysaccharides composed of repeating pentasaccharide units comprising a cellulose backbone and trisaccharide side chains of D-mannose and D-glucuronic acid residues. The gums also contain variable quantities of pyruvic acid. It used widely in the food industry as thickeners due to their ability to produce highly viscous, highly stable aqueous solutions. Other uses include as emulsifiers, stabilizers and binding agents, and to provide body, e.g. in low fat foods.
Xanthophylls: Group of neutral yellow or brown carotenoid pigments that are oxygenated derivatives of carotenes and distributed widely in plants. It is useful as food colorants.
X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy: Spectroscopy technique in which the sample is irradiated with X-rays, causing emission of a characteristic X-ray photon and fluorescence, which is measured using a spectrophotometer.
X-rays: Penetrating electromagnetic radiation of very short wavelength, able to pass through many materials. X-rays are produced by bombarding a target, usually made of tungsten, with high-speed electrons. The shorter the wavelength of the X-ray, the greater is its energy and its penetrating power. Longer wavelengths, near the UVray band of the electromagnetic spectrum, are known as soft X-rays. The shorter wavelengths, closer to and overlapping the gamma-ray range, are called hard X-rays. A mixture of many different wavelengths is known as white X-rays, as opposed to monochromatic X-rays, which represent only a single wavelength. X-rays are used in the food industry for a wide range of analytical purposes, including detection of foreign.

Whether you are an experienced gardener or a newcomer to the high desert, learning how to successfully garden the desert can be an exciting challenge. With minimal annual precipitation, a short growing season and fluctuating temperatures, maintaining an attractive, healthy landscape can keep you on your toes. Most gardeners value the natural beauty of our native landscapes, but are interested in enhancing it with additional plants to add more color and texture. Can a more beautiful landscape be created and still be water efficient and sustainable? The answer is YES.

The Meaning of Xeriscape

The word xeriscaping (pronounced zer-iskap- ing) is commonly referred to as water-wise or water-smart gardening. Xeros is derived from the Greek word meaningdry’. However, do not let the Greek derivative conjure up images of a dry, desert-like, “blandscape.” Xeriscaping and Xerogardening refer to landscape gardening in ways that reduce or eliminate the need for supplemental irrigation. It is promoted in areas that do not have easily accessible supplies of fresh water and is gaining acceptance in other areas as climate pattern changes. Xeriscape is a proactive approach to curbing wasteful use of a valuable natural resource. Xeriscaping, is a seven step method that combines innovative water conservation techniques with sound horticultural practices. Not only it is possible to have a colorful and beautiful landscape while conserving water, but it can become more sustainable while saving you time, energy and money.

Often it is thought that a xeriscape means the use of all native or low water use plants, resulting in limited plant selection. However xeriscapes can incorporate hundreds of plant choices including trees, shrubs, evergreens, perennials and grasses. Plants whose natural requirements are appropriate to the local climate are emphasized, and care is taken to avoid losing water through evaporation and run off. The specific plants used in xeriscaping depend upon the climate. The concept originated in Denver, Colorado, in early 1980s. Because of severe drought conditions, Denver rationed water and prohibited irrigation of lawns and yards. As a result, vegetation in yards withered, and Denver landscapers began promoting what they called xeriscape, a landscaping approach that uses small amounts of water but maintains a traditional look. In some areas, terms likes water-conserving landscapes, drought tolerant landscaping, zeroscaping and smart scaping are used instead.

9.1 Introduction

Xeriscaping is the fine art of creating water-efficient landscapes by using plants that are appropriate to the natural environment. Xeriscaping (zer-i-skaping) is a word originally coined by a special task force of the Denver Water Department, Associated Landscape Contractors of Colorado and Colorado State University to describe landscaping with water conservation as a major objective. The derivation of the word is from the Greek “xeros,” meaning dry, and scape meaning the pattern of the landscape – thus, xeriscaping. The term xeriscaping represents a practice or philosophy with the goal to establish and maintain an attractive and healthy landscape while reducing water usage. One of the prime practices in xeriscaping is the use of drought tolerant plants, but xeriscaping is more than that. It also includes changes in the landscape design, soil improvement, efficient irrigation, mulching, and other maintenance practices which contribute towards a water-wise landscape. But xeriscapes are not dry and dull. Well-designed xeriscapes are enchanting and beautiful. The best xeriscapes use a fraction of the water needed by traditional lawn-dominated landscapes. Some xeric plants require little or no supplemental watering once they are established. And xeriscapes require far less ongoing maintenance.

Yamogenin: A triterpene plant steroid belonging to a group of sapongenins that is obtained from Dioscorea and is used in making oral contraceptives.

Youngia tenuifolia (Willd.) Babc. & Stebb. (Asteraceae): Ladakhi– Neu [W]. A perennial herb of high altitude cold arid areas.

Yates’ correction: Yates has suggested a correction for continuity in χ² value calculated in a 2×2 table, predominantly when cell frequencies are small and χ² is just on the significance level. The correction suggested is known as Yates’ correction, which involves the reduction of the deviation of observed from expected frequencies that reduces the value of χ².

Yabby: It is one of the burrowing Australian crayfishes (Cherax destructor) that are used for food.

Yakitori: A bite-size marinated pieces of beef, seafood, or chicken on skewers is called yakitori.

Yam: It is edible starchy tuberous root of plants (genus Dioscorea of the family Dioscoreaceae) used as a staple food in tropical areas (Plate 676).

Yautia: It is one of the aroid plants (Xanthosoma sagittifolium) chiefly of tropical America with starchy edible shaggy brown tubers that are cooked and eaten like yams or potatoes (Plate 677).

Yearling mutton: Meat obtained from 12-20 month aged sheep. It is also called Earling mutton.

Yeast: Unicellular plant body, very minute in size containing cell wall, cytoplasm with one or more vacuoles and a single nucleus, cause alcoholic fermentation (Plate 678). Yeast usually has little or no mycelium, and reproduces by budding. It results in production of yellowish surface froth or sediment that occurs in saccharine liquids (fruit juices) in which it promotes alcoholic fermentation, consists largely of cells of a fungus (as the saccharomyces, Saccharomyces cerevisiae), and is used in the making of alcoholic liquors and as a leaven in baking.

Yakult: Yakult Original is a fermented milk drink that contains over 650 crores of beneficial bacteria called Lactobacillus casei Shirota (SHIROTA strain). It has a unique sweet and tangy taste and is enjoyed by people of all ages. It is one of the probiotic foods that is drunk to help maintain the health of the gastrointestinal tract. It has benefits like (i) Improves Digestion: The Unique bacteria in Yakult Original helps to balance the gut microbiota, aiding digestion and promoting regular bowel movements. (ii) Boosts Immunity: Regular consumption can enhance the body’s natural defences by stimulating the immune system. (iii) Supports Gut Health: By increasing the number of good bacteria in the gut, Yakult Original helps maintain a healthy digestive system.
Yeast biomass: Quantitative estimate of the total population of yeasts present in a given habitat, in terms of mass, volume or energy.
Yeast extracts: Water soluble fraction of autolysed yeasts. During autolysis, yeast enzymes hydrolyse cytoplasmic proteins and carbohydrates. Insoluble cell wall material (cellulose) is removed, e.g. by centrifugation, to leave a clear extract of water soluble cellular material that is rich in amino acids and other nutrients. Yeast extracts are used as flavourings, as a source of nutrients for microbial fermentation, and as a source of B group vitamins for fortification of foods.

The yak is a bovine species that provides livelihoods for people in high altitude conditions of extreme harshness and deprivation. Yaks live predominantly on the “roof of the world”, as the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau is often called, and provide milk, meat, hair and down fibre, hides, draught power and dung (principally used as fuel). The yak has physical and physiological characteristics that allow it to thrive at high altitudes (low oxygen) and in extreme cold (at temperatures as low as -40 °C) and to survive feed shortages in the winter (FAO).

The milk yield of the yak cow is often no more than the amount suckled by the calf and is not comparable to the milk yield of dairy cattle. However, although milk offtake for human consumption may be at the expense of the calf, yak milk is important for households. In economic terms, milk is often the most important yak product. Yak milk is generally produced by small-scale farmers in traditional systems where management is highly influenced by climate and seasons. Lactation is seasonal and yak cows produce between 150 and 500 litres; yields vary by breed and location. Lactation can generally continue into a second year without another calving. During the winter, yak cows do not go dry and continue to produce a small amount of milk, with milk yields as low as 2 to 4 litres/month. During the second year of lactation, milk yields are between half and two-thirds of those in the first year. Currently, there are no specialized dairy yak breeds (FAO).

Abstract

Yak milk is unique as it is rich source of nutrients and is the main source of milk derived nutrition in hilly areas, where the availability of bovine milk is very limited. It is considered as a concentrated source of nutrients with a total solids (TS) content of approximately 16.9-17.7%. The nutritional profile and physico-chemical properties of yak milk is very different from that of conventional source of milk. Though, the production of yak milk and milk products is not organized and is limited to the custom of high altitude regions only. However, yak milk and milk products like churpi, kurut, orom, paneer, churkam, serkam, butter etc. are gaining attention of consumers due to their significant nutritional and therapeutic value. Owing to this, it has further increased the interest of researchers for the development of new array of yak milk based organic dairy products. Therefore, with growing demand of natural functional foods, yak milk could be valuable product to meet the demand of functional foods.

The aim of this chapter is to highlight the nutritional profile of yak milk including, amino acid profile, lipid profile and mineral composition. Yak milk based regional products are also discussed in order to provide some basic information regarding the value addition of yak milk.

Yam bean (Pachyrhizus erosus) is a leguminous tuber crop of immense production potential. The crop has high rate of dry matter production / day / unit area and is known for its high degree of photosynthetic efficiency. Besides contributing significantly as a source of food to  weaker sections, the crop has immense industrial value for extraction of starch and production of animal feed. Yam bean is well suited to small and marginal holdings and has the capacity to withstand adverse biotic and abiotic stresses. It comes up well in comparatively marginal lands and does not require intensive care. It has  great potential in developing and underdeveloped countries where most of the farmers are small and marginal . This crop is very important in the context of food and nutrition security and assumes great significance due to ever-increasing human population. Still the importance of this crop is underestimated and unlike most staples, the crop fails to attract attention of  agricultural researchers throughout the tropical and subtropical countries of the world. The crop is still largely under-exploited and is subjected to little selection pressure. A large degree of variability exists for several agronomic characteristics in the existing germplasm. With a little attention from the scientists ,this crop could usefully be exploited by genetic improvement and development of crop ideotypes which would meet a wide range of needs in developing countries.

Yam bean(Pachyrrhizus erosus), a leguminous crop, native of North America is cultivated for its edible tubers. Though six species of Pachyrrhizus are grown for tuberous roots, P. erosus, P. tuberosus and P. aphipa are important.

While P. erosus(L.) Urban(2n = 22) has pods of 7.5-13 cm long, P. tuberosus has longer pods of 13-30 cm. P. aphipa is a non climbing plant with fusiform tubers and this species is mainly cultivated in Bolivia.  Synonyms for P. erosus are P. angulatus, P. bulbosus and Dolichus erosus.  P. erosus is the species commercially cultivated in India.

Wild forms of yam bean are seen in Mexico and northern parts of Central America, where its cultivation is reported during pre-Coloumbus period.  Yam bean is believed to have spread from Mexico to Philippines, Amboina before 17th century.  Now, yam bean is cultivated in China, Thailand, Singapore, India and Hawaii.

In India, it is grown in Bihar, West Bengal and Orissa.  In Hindi, it is called as “Miskri kand” and in Bihar as “Kesaru”.

Years of potential life lost : A measure of the impact of premature mortality on a population, calculated as the sum of the differences between some predetermined minimum or desired life span and the age of death for individuals who died earlier than that predetermined age.

Yeasts

Yeasts are non filamentous, unicellular fungi that are typically spherical or oval. Like molds, yeasts are widely distributed in nature; they are frequently found as a white powdery coating on fruits and leaves.

Etiology

Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, non-motile at 37 C but motile at room temperature around 25 C. It is a disease of turkeys, ducks, geese, chickens, guinea fowl, and companion birds and free flying birds. It has also been reported in many species of mammals including man. In man, it causes symptoms of appendicitis. The disease has been reported in many countries. Body excretions of diseased birds or mammals that contaminate soil, food and water are the important factor in the transmission of the disease. The disease usually occurs as an acute septicemia of short duration, followed by a chronic focal infection.

Yersinia species are non-lactose fermenters and, with the exception of Y. pestis are motile. Although there are more than 10 Yersinia species, only Y. pestis, Y. enterocolitica and Y. pseudotuberculosis are pathogenic for animals and man. Yersinia ruckeri causes perioral haemorrhagic inflammation in some species of fish. Growth of yersiniae tends to be less rapid than other members of the
Enferobacteriaceae. They characteristically demonstrate bipolar staining in Giemsa-stained smears from animal tissues
Natural Habitat
Y. pestis, the cause of bubonic plague in man and a sylvatic cycle in animals, is transmitted mainly by fleas from tolerant rodents. Human infections through cuts, bites, scratches and aerosols can also occur. Cats are susceptible to Y.pestis and naturally infected cats can pose a health hazard for humans in endemic areas. Y. pseudotuberculosis persists in wild rodents and birds as well as in the environment. The intestinal tract of wild and domestic animals appears to be the reservoir for Y. enterocolitica. Pigs, particularly, are carriers of Y. enterocolitica strains pathogenic for humans.
Isolation
Yersinia species grow on nutrient, blood and MacConkey agars but the colonies, after 24 hours incubation, tend to be smaller than those of the other members of the Enterobacteriaceae. Y. pestis grows poorly on agars containing desoxycholate whereas Y. enterocolitica and Y. pseudotuberculosis grow well on these media. Yersinia selective medium (CIN agar) containing the antibiotic supplement cefsulodin (15mg/litre), irgasin (4 mg/litre) and novobiocin (2.5 mg/litre) is designed for the isolation of Y. enrerocolitica from faeces.

5.1 Seed back up programs

In hybrid breeding program, testing of new hybrid combinations is a continuous process and in most cases, the availability of crossed (hybrid) seed for their annual evaluation of selected hybrids is an important issue. Since, the selection of hybrids for advancement is based on yield data, one year will be required to produce seed for testing in the subsequent season. This means for each cycle of advancement, one valuable season will be consumed in their seed production. To avoid this situation and enhance the testing program at a fast pace, an aggressive hybrid seed production program should be followed. This can be achieved by visually selecting relatively more number of hybrids based on their flowering time, plant vigor, disease resistance, and early pod load about 4-5 weeks before harvesting. During this period, the new seed of the selected hybrids can be produced manually. This operation is facilitated by the perennial nature of pigeonpea plant, which can flower for extended periods of 40-50 days; that allows completion of desired number of pollinations of the target crosses in the same cropping season. One trained person can pollinate about 300 buds in 6-7 hours; and with 20% success, about 150 seeds can be produced. Experience has shown that, with good planning and crop management, this program can be achieved with ease.

Object: Yield estimation of kharif crops.

Material required: Polythene bags, balance, gunny bags or baskets, pans and harvesting equipment like sickle, knife etc.

Theory: Yield is the ultimate objective of cultivating agricultural plants. Different plant parts constitute the economic yield in different crops, like grain in cereals, pulses and oil seeds, vegetative parts or fruits in record yield at the correct maturation stage. Do not allow excessive wilting or drying of the material. Estimate yield in a sufficiently large sample. Materials required only a representative crop to estimate yields. (Do not select plants of any particular type. Do not damage any plant part vegetable crops; bark or out growth in fiber crops (jute, cotton); and the entire plant in fodder crops. The yield per unit area (per M₂ or ha) is the product of yield per plant multiplied by the number of plants per unit area. It is, therefore, essential to know the yield components per plant as well as per unit area.

Yield mapping or yield monitoring is a technique in agriculture of using GPS data to analyse variables such as crop yield and moisture content in a given field. This data produces a yield map that can be used to compare yield distribution within the field from year to year. This allows farmers to determine areas of the field that, for example, may need to be more heavily irrigated or are not yielding any crop at all. It also allows farmers to show the effects of a change in field-management techniques, to develop nutrient strategies for their fields, and as a record of crop yield.

Yield is ultimate indicator of variation of different agronomic parameters in different parts within the field. So mapping of yield and interpretation and correlation of that map with the spatial and temporal variability of different agronomic parameters helps in development of next season’s crop management strategy. Yield monitors measure the volume or mass flow rate to generate time periodic record of quantity of harvested crop for that period. Time periodic yield data is then synchronized with location address obtained from on-board GPS system to create most common colour coded thematic map. Yield mapping can be carried out easily in mechanized crops. By using either loading cells that weighed the crop passing on a conveying belt or an array of sonic beam mounted over the grape discharge chute to estimate the volume, and the tonnage, of fruit harvested. Tree crops seem to have more stable yields. In handpicked fruits yield mapping is more difficult. Yield maps are one of the most valuable sources of spatial data for precision agriculture. In developing these maps, it is essential to remove the data points that do not accurately represent the yield at a corresponding location. Map averaging or smoothing is usually done to aid data interpretation. A long yield history is essential to avoid drawing conclusions that are affected by the weather or other unpredictable factors during a particular year. Processed yield maps can be used to investigate factors affecting the yield or to prescribe variable rate applications of agricultural inputs according to spatially variable yield goals (yield potential).

The stability of yield is an important characteristic to be considered when judging the value of a cropping systems when compared to others cropping systems. Here, we focus on multiple cropping and how this agroecological practice can be used to increase the sustainability of crop production. Strip, mixed and relay intercropping can be used to increase crop yields through resource partitioning and facilitation. In addition to achieving greater productivity, diversifying cropping systems through the use of strategic cropping systems will increase yield stability, reduce weeds, pests, disease and improve soil health. Several multiple cropping systems are already implemented in industrialized agricultural landscapes, including mixed intercropping with perennial grasses and legumes as forage and relay intercropping with winter wheat and red clover. Because multiple cropping systems will provide numerous benefits, researchers should be clear about their objectives and use appropriate methods so as not to draw spurious conclusions when studying multiple cropping systems. In order to advance the practice, experiments that test the effects of multiple cropping systems should use standardized methodology and researchers should report a set of common criteria to facilitate cross-study comparisons. Multiple cropping systems with two or more crops appears to be less common with annuals than perennials, which is likely due to differences in the mechanisms responsible for complementarity. One area where intercropping with annuals in industrialized agricultural landscapes has advanced is with cover crops, where private, public and governmental organizations have harmonized efforts to increase the adoption of cover crop mixtures.

The integration of yoga practices into community mobilization represents a profound synthesis of ancient wisdom and contemporary social transformation methodologies, offering communities powerful tools for personal and collective empowerment that address the physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual dimensions of human development. This innovative approach recognizes that sustainable community change requires not only strategic planning and organizational capacity but also the inner resources, collective harmony, and holistic well-being that yoga practices can cultivate among community members. Yoga, derived from the Sanskrit word “yuj” meaning to unite or join, embodies principles of integration and connection that align naturally with community mobilization goals of bringing people together for collective action and mutual support. The ancient science of yoga offers systematic practices for developing self-awareness, emotional regulation, physical vitality, and spiritual wisdom that can enhance communities’ capacity for sustained collective action while promoting individual well-being and social harmony. The application of yoga in community contexts

Abstract

February 14, 2019 marks the third anniversary of the One Billion Rising campaign, a new escalation in violence against women that calls for a radical shift to end the global epidemic of abuse that women face worldwide. Violence against women continues to be on rise. This ill-omened barrier to achieving equality, development, peace as well as to the fulfillment of women and girls’ human rights has gone viral. The National Coalition against Domestic Violence reports that 1.3 million women are victims of domestic abuse each year. Violence against women is a serious problem in India, too. Overall, one-third of women age 15-49 have experienced physical violence and about 1 in 10 has experienced sexual violence. It is very disturbing as well as discouraging to think that a country that praises womanhood through epics and their devotion to goddesses can be so demeaning and indifferent when it comes to the common women living in the country. Amid environment of bleak hope, yog with multiple benefits of physical, psychological and mental stresses offers a ray of hope for women. Yog means connectivity with oneself that ignites power to understand strength of one’s own innerself, builds confidence to think of innovative attainments, endure the atrocities of external world and stay moralized. Yog classes run throughout the world providing relief to billions. Yog therapies are in operation to cure social stress, mental fatigue and physiological disorders etc. More research on yog, yog therapy and yogic interventions aided by political and social will are needed to have its effective implications on the women empowerment and sustainability of human world.

As rural populations decrease, so does the agricultural work force. In Europe and North America, agriculture now represents about 5% of the work force. In Africa and Asia, it is expected that the number of agricultural workers will have decreased from nearly 70% of the population in the 1980s to barely 50% by 2015 (Crop life International, 2010). The events of the past few years have highlighted the vulnerability of global food security to major shocks – both in the global agricultural markets and in the world economy. The food price crisis and the ensuing economic crisis reduced the purchasing power of large segments of the population in many developing countries, severely curtailing their access to food and thus undermining their food security. “We estimate that in 2012 there will be over a million children suffering from severe acute malnutrition – what’s important to know is that malnutrition can kill,” UNICEF’s Director of Emergency Programmes, Louis-Georges Arsenault, said in a news release. “We need more resources to really scale up our response before it becomes too late and too many lives are lost.” Sahel and other regions in the Horn of Africa are facing severe food crisis (UN, 2012). In such a condition, to feed the hungry mouths of the world, agriculture needs to be more modern and decisions should be information and knowledge based and not instinct-based. Information and communication technology has a great role to play here.

Youth Engagement in Farming
Youth engagement in farming is critical for the future of agriculture, given the challenges of an aging farming population, rural-to-urban migration and the declining interest in agriculture among young people. Empowering youth to view agriculture as a viable and profitable career can ensure food security and foster rural development.
Importance of Youth Engagement in Farming
• Demographic Dividend: Harness the potential of the large youth population to rejuvenate the agricultural workforce.
• Innovation and Technology Adoption: Youth are more likely to adopt modern agricultural technologies, digital tools, and innovative practices.
• Sustainable Development: Involve youth in addressing climate change, biodiversity loss, and resource conservation through sustainable farming.
• Rural Livelihoods: Reduce rural unemployment and migration by making farming attractive and lucrative.
Strategies for Engaging Youth in Farming
1. Modernizing Agriculture • Promote Agri-Tech: Introduce youth to precision farming, drones, IoT, and AI-based tools.
• Mechanization: Provide access to modern machinery to reduce drudgery and increase productivity.
2. Entrepreneurship Opportunities
• Agri-Startups: Encourage youth to explore startups in organic farming, agribusiness, food processing, and agri-tourism.
• Value Addition: Train youth in post-harvest management and valueadded product creation.

While on one hand, more than 25 per cent of rural population in India is between 15 and 29 years of age, on the other, very little demographic dividend in agriculture is being derived. Unable to find decent employment, youth often look for employment in the urban informal sector, with poor working conditions and pay. But without training in skills suited to the urban labour market, these youth have few opportunities in the urban areas. Inadequately trained to compete successfully in urban labour market, they often suffer varying levels of poverty and marginalization in towns than in rural areas. In rural areas, if young farmers do not replace the ageing farmers, it will result in problems related to food security. For young people to take to agriculture, farming must be personally satisfying, mentally challenging, socially acceptable and economically rewarding. However, field reality is something different.

The World is a home to more than one billion young people aged between 15 and 24 years.  Many are unable to fulfil their potentional because of poverty, hunger, poor health and lack of education. As a result, they lack the skills needed to gain employment, with rural youth typically, but often fruitlessly migration in search of economic opportunities. However, given support and opportunities for gainful employment, young people have the potential to play a significant role in agriculture.

India has a big advantage as more than half of its population is below 30 years of age.  Indian agriculture will receive a big boost if the country takes advantage of its young population and encourage them into farm sector by making it lucrative.  It is necessary to launch a Youth for Agricultural Transformation Movement in rural India. Youth can provide demand driven services such as farm health monitoring and marketing of biological software essential for sustainable agriculture, climate-risk management, organization  of bio-parks, food parks, bio-village, bio-industrial watersheds and improved post-harvesting technology. Educated rural youth can establish Village Knowledge Centres (VKVs) to provide information at right time to farmers. Home Science graduates can establish nutrition clinics to help hidden hunger through appropriate local grains and vegetables (Swaminathan, M.S.). Why Youth in Agriculture?