eChapters

Galangal is the dried rhizome or root of a plant, Alpinia galanga Linn. Willd. which grows mainly in the Eastern Himalayas and South-Western India. The plant is 1.8-2.1 meters high, and bears perennial rhizomes which are deep, orange-brown in color, aromatic, pungent and bitter. The fruits are about 13 mm long, constricted in the middle, and contains 3-6 seeds. The seeds are slightly pungent, with an aroma similar to that of the rhizome. Cut pieces of the rhizomes of this species are known as “Greater Galangal”. The rhizome of “Lesser Galangal” is smaller and reddish brown in color, and, has a stronger odor ansd taste. According to Guenther (1973) Galangal root is also known under the names of “Smaller Galangal” and “Radix galangal minoris”. The earliest reference to this spice is that of an Arabian geographer Ibn Khurdabah (869-895 AD), who included Galangal in a list of products from a country he refers to as Sila (which was undoubtedly China). Sometimes later, Plutarch made reference to the use of Galangal as a fumigating spice by the early Egyptians. In 1153, it was mentioned by Edrisi as an incoming spice into Ade, which was then the port used by the Egyptians for all Asiatic products. In his travels, Marco Polo mentions that it was produced fairly extensively in Kachanfu and Kinsai (Tonkin). Galangal is one of the spices which reached European markets relatively early, for it is mentioned along with Black pepper in the literature of the Middle Ages, where it received praise in various writings dealing with drugs, medicines etc. The source of the spice which was reaching the European market remained almost unknown until the last century, when in 1867, a plant of unknown botanical origin was discovered in the extreme south of China. The following year, Hance examined both dried and living specimens of the plant and was able to conclude that it was the same as the “Lesser Galangal” known to the pharmacists.

The gall bladder is a small/pear shaped, muscular organ closely attached to the under surface of the liver. Its only function is to store and concentrate the bile between meals so there will be a plentiful supply when needed. Bile from the liver is a clear, golden colour when formed, but after being concentrated in the gall bladder it turns a deep green. This concentrating process sometimes results in the formation of stones in the gall bladder, particularly following pregnancy in commonly over weight women. Many people with gallstones seem to have no problem at all, especially if there is one large stone. But when a number of smaller stones are present in the gall bladder, the patient may feel sharp, cramp like pains all over the upper abdomen.

The predisposing causes are stagnation of bile, due to an excessive diet of starch and fat, constipation, obesity, pregnancy, tight lacing or other obstruction to the flow of bile.

The exciting causes are catarrhal and infective inflammation of the gall bladder, like sepsis, typhoid etc., and tumors. Old patients and women are most susceptible.

43.1 Introduction

Game fish (also known as sport fish or quarry) are freshwater or saltwater fish that are pursued by recreational anglers or fished with a rod and line from clear running water (Hora 1943). Some game fish (such as salmon and tuna) are commercially targeted. In other words, game fish are fish caught for sport or subsistence. Trophy f ish are game fish that are larger and heavier than the average for the species.

16.1. Introduction

Game theory is a mathematical framework designed for understanding and analyzing strategic interactions among rational decision-makers. It has applications in various fields such as economics, political science, psychology, biology, and computer science. The foundational premise of game theory is that the outcome of a decision made by one agent depends on the decisions made by others. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of game theory, covering its fundamental concepts, types of games, solution concepts, and applications.

16.2. Fundamental Concepts

16.2.1. Players

In game theory, a player is any individual or entity that makes decisions within the context of the game. Players are assumed to be rational, meaning they aim to maximize their own utility or payoff based on their preferences and the information available to them.

Game theory : How to win at Twister? No, but maybe at monopoly. Game theory is a technique for analysing how people, firms and governments should behave in strategic situations (in which they must interact with each other), and in deciding what to do must take into account what others are likely to do and how others might respond to what they do. For instance, competition between two firms can be analysed as a game in which firms play to achieve a long-term competitives advantage (perhaps even a monopoly). The theory helps each firm to develop its optimal strategy for, say, pricing its products and deciding how much to produce; it can help the firm to anticipate in advance what its competitor will do and shows how best to respond if the competitor does something unexpected. It is particularly useful for understanding behaviour in monopolistic competition. In game theory, which can be used to describe anything from wage negotiations to arms races, a dominant strategy is one that will deliver the best results for the player, regardless of what anybody else does. One finding of game theory is that there may be a large first-mover advantage for companies that beat their rivals into a new market or come up with an innovation. One special case identified by the theory is the zero-sum game, where players see that the total winnings are fixed; for some to do well, others must lose. Far better is the positive-sum game, in which competitive interaction has the potential to make all the players richer. Another problem analysed by game theorists is the prisoners’ dilemma. (See also nashequilibrium).

GATT : See general agreement on tariffs and trade and world trade organisation.

GDP : Gross domestic product, a measure of economic activity in a country. It is calculated by adding the total value of a country’s annual output of goods and services. GDP = private consumption + investment + public spending + the change in inventories + (exports-imports). It is usually valued at market prices; by subtracting indirect tax and adding any government subsidy, however, GDP can be calculated at factor cost. This measure more accurately reveals the income paid to factors of production. Adding income earned by domestic residents from their investments abroad, and subtracting income paid from the country to investors abroad, gives the country’s gross national product (GNP).

Introduction
Gametogenesis is the process by which gametes are produced in sexually reproducing organisms. This process involves a series of cellular divisions and differentiations and can be divided into two main types: spermatogenesis (the production of sperm) and oogenesis (the production of ova). Gametogenesis ensures genetic diversity through the processes of crossing over and independent assortment during meiosis. A gamete is a specialized cell involved in sexual reproduction. Gametes are haploid cells; contain only half the number of chromosomes of a diploid cell. Two gametes one from each parent fuses during fertilization to form a zygote, a diploid cell with a full set of chromosomes. The primordial germ cells develop from the wall yolk sac and differentiate into female and male gametes. During and after migration of primordial germ cells, they proliferate by mitoses and male and female primordial germ cells surrounded by somatic cells of their specific gonads and differentiate into oogonia in ovary and spermatogonia in testis. Meiosis is the process of cell division (Meiosis I and Meiosis II) in two specialized germ cells i.e. oogonia and spermatogonia to produce haploid female gametes (ovum) and male gametes (sperm) respectively. Meiosis I allow genetic recombination where exchange of DNA segment occurs between maternal and paternal chromatids.
Spermatogenesis
The development of sperm in the germinal epithelium of seminiferous tubules of the testis is known as spermatogenesis. Spermatogenesis starts, when the male animal attains the puberty. The sequential stages in spermatogenesis are
1. Mitotic/multiplication phase: Primordial germ cells undergo a series of mitotic divisions and localized in solid cords of primitive sustentacular cells (progenitor of Sertoli cells) within the seminiferous tubules (testis). At the age of puberty, the cell cords differentiated into seminiferous tubules of the testis and simultaneously primitive sustentacular cells became Sertoli cells and primordial germ cells produce spermatogonia throughout the life, having the features of stem cells. These spermatogonia remains dormant until the onset of puberty. Sertoli cells are very important for both physical support and paracrine regulation of spermatogenesis, and also form the blood-testis barrier by sealing off the seminiferous tubules with tight junctions. At puberty, they are activated and undergo series of mitotic division and produce clones of cells referred to as type A spermatogonia. Among type a

‘To a people famishing and idle, the only acceptable form in which God can dare appear is work and promise of food as wages’ — these were the words of Mahatma Gandhi when he was healing the wounds arising from the Hindu-Muslim divide at Naokhali in 1946. He thus stressed the symbiotic bonds among work, income and food security.
 
Eradication of hunger and poverty is also the first among the UN Millennium Development Goals, which in my view represent a Global Common Minimum Programme for human security and well-being.
 
Achieving this goal is fundamental for achieving the other goals relating to education, gender equality, child mortality, control of HIV/ AIDS, malaria and other diseases and, above all, environmental sustainability. Unfortunately, progress in the reduction of hunger and poverty is poor in most developing countries excepting a few like China. FAO estimates that as a result of the rise in the prices of basic staples, about 75 million more people have been added to the list of those going to bed hungry during 2007. As a single nation, we in India have the largest number of malnourished persons in the world.

Camphor (Cinnamomum camphora) known under the names camphor tree, camphorwood or camphor laurel of the family Lauraceae is obtained from the bark of camphor tree that is a principle source of camphor. It has its use throughout the globe and along the centuries as an ailment for various remedies that help in treating issues like irritations, pains, inflammation, congestion, etc. In addition to this Cinnamomum camphora also owns suppressive and anti mutagenic effect that is useful in treatment of deadly disease like human cancer cells retaining the healthy cells. Indian religious system is well versed with the utilization of Camphor in rituals, however the camphor used here is made synthetically.

The botanical name Cinnamomum camphora is derived from Greek language from the word ‘kinnamomon’ which refers to spice. This herb has its earliest record that is used by Egyptians for embalming purposes. Along with this it also finds its use in Sanskrit literature also. Camphor tree is a fragrant evergreen tree that is native to China, India, Mongolia, Japan and Taiwan and a variety of it is grown in Southern United States; especially in Florida. The species Camphora, referred to as camphor or karpura, is an important chemical ingredient present in the oil that found in the tissues of tree.

Morphological characteristics

It is a tall tree that grows up to 100 feet. The trunk is 8 m long and 2 m wide and bark is yellowish brown colored rough on the outside and smoother inside with vertical fissures. All parts of the tree have peculiar fragrance of camphor. Leaves are fragrant, leathery and are yellowish light to dark green with glossy veins with varied shape.

Gangana(Grewia tenax) is a deciduous tropical shrub widely distributed in arid and semi-arid region. In western Rajasthan, the natural habitat of this shrub is buried pediments, hills and pediplains (Bhandari, 1971). It does best on deep sandy loam, and can grow in very shallow, skeletal, gravelly or clay soils. It has been reported that the species grow abundantly (density = 678 individuals per ha.) in hilly waste lands of Kailana, Jodhpur. Sharma (1997) reported that its efficient root system can penetrate into minute rock crevices. It is extremely drought hardy and can withstand high temperature in hot arid climate. It tolerates frost well but plant growth is slow in arid region. Mostly fruits for sale in the local markets are collected from wild stands. It is underutilized species (Gebauer et al., 2007), the major limitations to the development as a horticultural crop is the lack of detailed information, particularly the genotype, physiology and ecology (Gebauer et al., 2007). Due to its drought hardy and dense root system, it seems promising species in arid region. It has good fodder value for small ruminants. It is naturally grown in range lands, orans, and hilly track of Aravalli. It is untapped plant species and its potential should be exploited.

Definition
Gangrene is a necrotic area invaded by saprophytic organisms leading to putrefaction.
Types of Gangrene
There are three types of gangrene
1. Dry gangrene
2. Moist gangrene
3. Gas gangrene
1. Dry Gangrene
Dry gangrene represents an area of coagulation necrosis resulting from  infarction followed by mummification. The extremities of the body like tail,  ears, legs and udder are affected.

Abstract

A considerable difference of gap has been observed between the generated technology and the technology available with the farmers. In order to find the possible causes or low production, a comprehensive bench mark survey of four Panchayats of Kandaghat block namely Sirinagar, Mahi, Kawarag and Bisha involving 500 farm families was done using PRA technique to ascertain the extent and gap in the generated technology and the technology adopted by the farmers. All the important components of the technology were assessed and the gap in adoption as well as the approximate cost of the gaps was estimated. In tomato and capsicum, it was observed that the farmers prepared their fields well, transplanted at the right time, performed the required intercultural operations and harvested the fruits at proper time. They however, did not treat the seed and the seed bed, applied sub-optimal/excess doses of fertilizes and adopted excessive plant protection measures against pests and diseases. In case of Cauliflower, the farmers used the recommended variety, prepared their fields well, transplanted at optimum time, adopted all cultural operations from time to time but they did not pay attention for protecting the crop against pest and diseases.They also applied ample quantity of fertilizers but did not follow proper spacing. If the farmers adopt the recommended practices, they are likely to gain around Rs 62,688/ha in tomato, Rs.55,563/ha in capsicum and Rs.54,188/ha in cauliflower.

Purpose-Planting of foliage and flowering trees, shrubs, climbers, annuals, perennials and lawn in a piece of land by adopting certain principles is termed as garden design. The objective of a garden layout by adopting a design to provide recreation, enjoyment and education to the society. Natural flora, religion, topography of land and climatic had played a major role in the development of garden designs. Basically there are two garden designs. In one the plantation of shrubs, trees, climbers etc. and lawns is done by adopting a geometrical design and maintaining bilateral balance whereas, in the other one the plantation is done by taking in account the topography and terrin of land, containing open lawns and cluster of trees. The former is called formal are artificial garden while the later is called as informal or landscape garden.

Garden should serve the feelings of comfort and pleasure along with soothing effect on mind and soul of the owner and the visitors. This should be the basic aim of the landscape designer along the budget. Landscape artist should never imitate another garden which has secured popularity but should develop one’s own design. Every plot or site may not be even and ideal for designing a garden. The principles of landscape design work together to create the overall look of the garden. Natural undulations of a barren landform should be utilized with its advantages and also to break the monotony of leveled plain. The principles of garden designing interact with the elements of color, texture, line, form and scale to develop a unified landscape design that blends the beauty of nature with the splendor of modern architecture.

7.1 Introduction

Garden designing is an important and crucial step as whole aesthetic view of the garden depends upon it. A beautifully designed garden can attract plenty of viewers as well as fauna while a poorly designed garden can destroy the view of the garden as a whole. So, while designing a garden all the basic principles and elements of gardening should be kept in mind.

7.2 Steps in Preparation of Garden Design

Site identification

Generally, the site for garden development is provided by the client itself. So, in this case we should go for site analysis step directly. Site identification is always a choice of client/human. If landscape architect has liberty to identify a land for garden establishment, he should identify the site as per choice of the client, usage and special considerations of the client.

Garden Features

In order to break the monotony and to enhance the beauty, any garden should contain components of varying nature. Some features are not only essential but also an important part of the visual design. Besides this, any garden feature allows to discover and save the creative ideas on a wide sheet of natural green carpet. Following are important features.

1. Arbour

It is a recessed or somewhat enclosed area shaded by trees or shrubs that serves as a resting place in a wooded area. In a more formal garden, an arbour is a small structure with vines trained over lattice work on a frame, providing a shady place. A true arbour includes a bench sheltered underneath for seating, which distinguishes it from a trellis. There are different types of arbours such as archway, wood, plastic, metal, etc. Arbour can be developed at several locations of the garden such as entrances at the main gate, pergola area, patios area, pathway entrance, pool area, etc.

Landscape models focus on both the integrated master landscape planning of a home gardening and specific garden design. The people should be educated to realize the importance of gardening, by providing good parks and gardens in cities for a large population to relax and enjoy the beauty of nature. The plants used in the landscape designing of gardens are directly or indirectly involved in increasing the aesthetic value of the city, changing microclimate, social behaviour of the people, checking pollution etc. The importance of landscape gardening in human welfare cannot be overlooked. Even in an under-developed country as India, people do not live by bread alone. They also need some finer things of life. The models described in this chapter are very basic features of any garden.

Garden Walls

A garden lover will never like to block the view of his garden by putting a wall along periphery of the garden. A garden as it is enjoyed from inside should also be visible from outside but sometimes, it is necessary from safety and beauty point of view to obscure the ugly sight of an open drain. A compromise is to have a low brick wall of say 60-90 cm height and to put over it some grills, so that the view is not totally obstructed from outside. Alternatively, walls from 1.80 to 5.0 m may also be erected based upon the size of the garden.

Garden Walls : A garden lover will never like to block the view of his garden by putting a wall along its periphery. A garden as it is enjoyed from inside should also be visible from outside.

• Low brick or concrete or stone wall of say 60-90 cm height and to put over it some grills.
• Alternatively walls from 1.8-5.0 m may also be erected depending upon the size of garden.
• One may grow creepers such as Ficus repens over the wall.

Flower Beds: The most essential criterion of a flower beds is display the flowers in the best way possible. It may be born in mind that flowers look best when massed in a bed. The flower beds are of special importance under condition of the plains of India since they can be kept planted throughout the year unlike those in England or other parts of Europe where nothing can be grown in the open between November-March. Annuals and herbaceous, perennial flowers, flowering plants are grown in flower beds to provide massing effect of different colours borders is continuous beds of more length than width containing plant of one kind only.

This is a very special type of garden for the visually impaired and disabled persons. The pleasure of seeing beauty of the nature like meadows, sky, sea, mountain and plants has always fascinated mankind who has vision. Unfortunately, people who are not able to see are entirely deprived of the pleasure associated with seeing such visual objects. Their world is entirely different from the others. However, they have got better sense of touch, smell and hearing ability to compensate loss of vision.

Disabled persons are also not in a position to enjoy fully the beauty of nature and plants due to restricted mobility. In addition, most of the ornamental gardens are not fully accessable by disabled persons particularly on wheel chairs.

The ‘Touch-‘N‘-Smell Garden’ is very rare and unique kind of garden meant for the visually impaired and disabled persons enabling them to learn about the diversity of plant species by touch and smell. In India, there are three such gardens. One in the Botanic Garden, CSIR- National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow and the others are at M.S. Swaminathan Foundation, Chennai and Rashtrapati Bhavan, New Delhi. Similar such sensory gardens of the world are in Berlin (Germany), Kyoto (Japan), New York (U.S.A.), Nanjing (China) and Warsaw (Poland).

Garden pea, Pisum sativum var. hortense under the family Fabaceae (Leguminosae) having chromosome No. 2n = 2x = 14 is an all-time favourite vegetable in the world. As a cool season crop, it is extensively grown in early spring season in temperate zone and winter season in the tropics and subtropics. The immature/green peas are used as fresh vegetable as well as frozen or canned. Green peas are quite nutritious and contain high amount of protein and a fair amount of vitamin C, zinc, fibre and antioxidants. Diet containing green pea may improve the functionality of the gut.
Origin, domestication and adaptation in India
Discovery of the carbonized pea seed remains indicated that the smooth-seeded field pea was cultivated in the Near East and Europe as early as 7000 B. C. The earliest archaeological finds of peas come from Neolithic Syria, Turkey and Jordan. In Egypt, evidence of peas dates from ca. 4800–4400 BC. The wild pea was restricted to the Mediterranean basin and the Near East. Central Asia (Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tazikistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, Afghanistan), Abyssinia (Ethiopia) and the Mediterranean basin are the primary centres of origin of pea with the near-east (Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Jordon) as the secondary centre of origin. In another view, Pisum is
considered to have been originated in Ethiopia and from where it spread during prehistoric times to Mediterranean region, Central Europe, the Near East and subsequently to rest of the world. The wild progenitor of Pisum sativum is unknown.

A number of tools, implements and machineries are used in cultivation of horticultural crops to make every operation easy and efficient. There are a number of operations involved in cultivation of horticultural crops, like making of nursery, propagation of plant material, field ploughing, breaking of clods, levelling, making bunds, sowing and planting, plant protection, training, pruning, harvesting, lawn mowing etc. All these operations are physically taxing and cannot be carried out efficiently without proper tools, implements and machineries. Following are some important tools -

1. Bill hook: To cut and remove big sized unwanted branches of trees.

2. Buckets and plastic pots: used in the orchard for spraying, transport water, carry harvested produce etc.

3. Budding and grafting knife: The budding and grafting operations in propagation of many horticultural plants are carried out using budding and grafting knife.

4. Country plough: Used in field preparation for ploughing the soil, incorporation of organic manures into the soil at the time of last ploughing, summer ploughing in conserving of soil moisture.

5. Crow bar: Used to loosen the soil, digging and deepening the pits and channels.

6. Dibbler: Used to make holes and sow the seeds in the nursery as well as in the main field.

7. Digging fork: It is of a great use in harvesting the tuber crops without damaging the produce.