eChapters

Dryland agriculture limits the crop growth to a part of the year due to lack of sufficient moisture (Peterson et al., 2006). According to the Fourth five-year plan of India, dry lands are defined as areas which receive rainfall ranging from 375 mm to 1125 mm and with very limited irrigation facilities. Dry lands are economically fragile regions which are highly vulnerable to environmental stress and shocks. Degraded soils with low water holding capacities along with multiple nutrient deficiencies and depleting ground water table contribute to low crop yields and further leading to land degradation. In a country like India, 44 per cent of the total food production is supported by dryland agriculture, thereby playing a critical role in nation’s food security. With the increasing population, food production has to be increased. A real need to second green revolution has been envisioned, which can be achieved by improving the dryland agriculture.

1.1. Introduction
The terms ‘counselling’ and ‘health promotion’ complement each other when it becomes a matter of an individual’s health. Health promotion is a part of behavioural social science that aims to change the systemic strategies adopted by the individual or group or by the mass community for the betterment of their health which can be achieved by talk therapy known as counselling. In the 21st century, from childhood to adulthood, all people are in a ‘rat race’ for their careers and necessities, which is one of the main reasons for stress generation. Not only that, chemical substances consumed by different food ingredients as food additives, preservatives, etc. but also induce oxidative stress and damage the functional activity of cells, tissues, organs, and systems. This ‘stress’ is a major culprit not only for the deterioration of physical health but also psychological health. Such stress imposition in daily life impairs normal physiological functions, skills, performance, and productivity. Unhealthy food, life, and work styles are also linked to the onset of pathophysiological complications that counselling and health promotion are required to overcome. Besides this, for sportsmen, pregnant women, lactating mothers, and growing children, nutritional counselling and health promotion are indisputable. For disease prevention and early recovery from disease, dietary counselling plays an immense role.
1.2. Counselling
Counselling is an intermittent, interpersonal interviewing process where the counsellor gives advice or suggestions to the client but never gives any direction. Counsellors assist the client in thinking, analysing, and acting to improve their insight power. The counsellor focuses on both the positive and negative sides of a particular event and allows the client to think and rethink its acceptability and unacceptability.

Marginal and sub marginal lands are being brought under cultivation to meet the demand of human and livestock in terms of rising demand of 6F viz., food, fodder, fuel wood, fibre and fertilizer. These in lands are unable to sustain productivity. Cultivation on such lands leads to imbalance in the ecosystem. In order to meet the above said demands and to conserve the natural resources, a diversified land use system needs to be adopted in different agro-ecological regions of the country as an alternative to conventional cropping systems. Through this approach, the biological productivity and quality of resource base of degraded lands can be significantly enhanced. Land use systems which are alternatives to crop production are called by the term ‘Alternate Land Use Systems’.

Pulses are edible seeds of the family Leguminosae, sub family papilionaceae, and are integral part of Indian diet. Indians consume 30 per cent of the world’s pulses, but domestic production of pulses has not kept pace with population growth. Pulses are called “poor man’s meat” as pulses are rich in protein, which is double the protein content of wheat and three times that of rice. Globally, 190 mha of pulses contributes to 5-7 mt of nitrogen in soils.

Pulse means

P = PEOPLE (major source of dietary protein)

U = UMBRELLA

L = LIVESTOCK (green nutritious fodder and feed)

S = SOIL (builder and restorer of soil fertility through biological nitrogen fixation and green manuring). E = ENERGY.

10.1 Introduction

Irrigation is an age old practice. It has been practiced for thousands of years. It is chiefly used to irrigate rice in wetter areas; especially in Asian countries and dry land crops including vegetables and fruits in dry land areas having low rainfall in all most all countries. Devices for irrigation water lifting range from age old indigenous water lifts to highly efficient pump. Unlike canal irrigation where water is fed to the fields through gravity system, water from the surface and sub-surface sources is lifted either mechanically by pump or manually by any indigenous lifting devices. Irrigation by lifting water from a lower level to a higher level is called as lift irrigation. Several types of indigenous water lifting devices are in vogue in India since ancient times. These are animal or/and manually operated ones, the animal operated ones being more efficient than the manually operated ones. The earliest water lifts were simple man-powered devices, many of which are still being used with modifications in different forms. With gradual improvement, principles of simple machines, like the liver, pulley, screw etc. were employed in smooth lifting of water from surface and sub-surface sources. The selection of a suitable water lifting device for a particular situation depends on the following factors:

(i) Characteristics of source of water and the lifting device

(ii) Amount of water to be lifted

(iii) Depth of water table

(iv) Type and amount of power available and

(v) Economic status of the farmers.

A. History, Principles, and Scope of Biological Control

Biological Control

Biological control, defined as the use of living organisms to reduce the population of pest species, stands out as one of the most successful, cost effective, and environmentally friendly methods of pest management. This natural process is intrinsic to maintaining ecological balance and supporting the greenery of our planet by enabling plants to produce the necessary biomass to sustain diverse forms of life.

The Essence and Impact of Biological Control

Biological control is an omnipresent force in both natural and human-made ecosystems, constantly active without any human intervention. Its origins trace back over 500 million years with the evolution of the first ecosystems. The process involves naturally occurring reductions in pest populations, which historically, have allowed for the flourishing of plant life critical to the earth’s ecological systems. Without these biological control mechanisms, the amount of energy produced by plants would be a fraction of current levels, drastically reducing the earth’s capacity to support life.

Policy influence requires credible evidence, a clear understanding of decision-making processes and communication tailored to relevant audiences. This chapter explains how extension research, programme experience and stakeholder knowledge can be converted into evidence for policy change. It discusses identifying policy problems, assessing alternatives, setting advocacy objectives, recognizing policy champions, building coalitions and selecting appropriate routes of influence. Policy briefs, research reports, dialogue platforms, advisory committees, social media and ICT-based communication are examined as practical tools. The chapter also reviews global extension-policy experiences, helping readers understand how institutional, political and socioeconomic contexts shape policy decisions and how evidence-based engagement can support effective agricultural reforms.

In the context of a thesis, theoretical orientation refers to the conceptual or theoretical framework or perspective that informs and shapes the overall approach and analysis of the research (Natalie, 2022). It involves selecting and adopting a specific set of theories, concepts, or models that provide a foundation for understanding and interpreting the research topic. The theoretical orientation helps to guide the methodology, and provide a coherent framework for organizing and analysing the data.

Theoretical orientation in a thesis serves several purposes. It helps to establish a theoretical basis for the study, providing a context for the research and connecting it to existing knowledge and theories in the field. It also helps to guide the selection of appropriate research methods and data analysis techniques. The theoretical orientation shapes the overall structure and content of the thesis, ensuring that the study is grounded in relevant theories and concepts and contributes to the existing body of knowledge. By adopting a specific theoretical orientation, the researcher can provide a clear and systematic framework for understanding and interpreting the findings of the study. This orientation also helps to establish credibility and validity for the research, as it demonstrates the researcher’s awareness of and engagement with the existing theoretical perspectives in the field.

This chapter addresses crucial terminology and concepts essential for effectively communicating the ideas of the current study. It lays the groundwork for empirical investigation and aids in the selection of predictor variables. Additionally, this section involves a scholarly and theoretical exercise that influences the operational definition and content of the research. It combines conceptual inputs, axiomatic inputs, logical discussions, and the pursuit of knowledge to construct a theory that aligns with the research objectives and designs.

Wheat also known as bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L. em. Thell, 2n = 6x = 42, family Poaceae formerly Gramineae or grass family, a self-pollinated crop), second only to rice as source of calorie has been grown on 218 million ha with production of 765 million tons globally during 2019-20. Top five countries, namely, China (135 million tons), India (103 million tons), Russia (77 million tons), USA (51 million tons) and Canada (34 million tons) account for 65% of the global production. Other major countries growing wheat are Ukraine (28 million tons), Pakistan (26 million tons), Australia (24 million tons), Argentina (21 million tons) and Turkey (18 million tons). Wheat is eaten by 2.5 billion people in 89 countries and distributed from Scandinavia to South America and across Asia. Global annual wheat trade is worth USD 50 billion.

6.1. INTRODUCTION

After introduction of TN-1 (Taichung Native-1), Jaya, IR8 and other high yielding rice varieties during sixties and seventies, the productivity increased drastically and remained at plateau since last three decades. With no possibility to extend land area for rice cultivation in Asia, there is some scope for production advantages in rice through further expansion of high yielding varieties coverage in Pakistan, Thailand and India, expansion of area under irrigation in Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, Myanmar, the Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam, or expansion of boro rice in Bangladesh, India and Myanmar. Thus, utilization of heterosis has become one of the main methods for increasing yield. Hybrid is one of the viable and proven technologies to improve rice productivity. China is the first successful country to produce hybrid rice in appreciable quantity. This technology not only helped China to increase the rice productivity, but also to save land for crop diversification. The 'National Food Security Mission' has been launched envisaging increase of annual rice production by 10 million tons by 2011-'12. Here, hybrid rice may play important role to achieve the assigned target.

Digestion is the process by which food is converted into substances that can be absorbed and assimilated by a living organism. In most animals it is accomplished in the digestive tract by the mechanical and enzymatic breakdown of foods into simpler chemical compounds. Digestion usually consists of two elements: a mechanical/ physical stage, e.g. mastication, churning, emulsification, in which no chemical bonds are broken and no enzymes are required; and a chemical stage requiring enzymes in which complex food molecules are broken down by hydrolysis into a state in which they can be absorbed.

Introduction

Recent advances in food technology have made our lives virtually easier and efficient. Changing lifestyle has led to the emergence of packaged food that provides convenience to the consumers. The authentic packaging of food implements consumers with the role of communication, containment, convenience, and protection. Any typical food package provides us with the information about the product and its nutritional fact, thus an efficient way of marketing/ branding. It protects the food product from the external environment and adulteration, thus keeps it safe. It allows the consumers to relish the food as per their convenience (reheating and direct consumption) and holds the product of any size, shape and restrains during handling and transportation (Robertson, 2006).

Food packages can be altered or modified according to one’s requirement with features like single-serving dishes and portability. However, traditional packaging is lacking adequacy to meet unending consumer demands and product intricacies. Therefore, a contemporary concept of packaging with higher proficiency is needed to meet various consumer requirements. For instance, a packaging that can - enhance product’s shelf-life with lesser or no preservatives, that maintains freshness, that meets permissible regulatory requisites and enables tracking throughout the product life-cycle. Emerging technologies like smart packaging have the expertise to invigilate a product and its milieu and pursue any modifications into these. Moreover, smart packaging helps in gaining global market recognition, and meets international food safety standards. In recent years, there has been rapid development in food packaging that includes active packaging, intelligent packaging, or smart packaging. These are the technologies that deal with the packaging of food, beverages, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical products. Moreover, these terminologies are apparently identical but, each has a different function to deal with and is as follows:

Before trying to understand Hypothesis Testing and Experimental Designs, we should be conversant with the concept of Probability Distribution.

5.1 PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS

Let us look at an example to grasp the essence of a probability distribution. Let us rotate a pair of dice and observe the sum by totalling the numbers that turn upon in both the dice. Let us call this sum by a random variable X. When the first dice shows up number 1, the second dice could show 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6. Likewise, when the first dice shows up number 2, the second dice could show 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6. If we continue the experiment this way until all the possibilities are exhausted, the sample space will contain 36 elements. The distribution that can be observed will contain a sum = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, or 12. The starting sum will be = 2, because when both the dice show the number 1, the sum 1 + 1 = 2. Likewise, the maximum sum in the distribution will be 12, when both the dice show up a number 6. If we write the values of the random variable (sum) with associated probabilities, it is called a probability distribution.

Sonograms of animals suffering from different diseases are presented along with other investigations as case studies to provide a comprehensive picture of the disease.

Order: Diptera
Sub Order: Orthorrhapha
Series: Nematocera
Family: Ceratopogonidae
Genus: Culicoides
Species: Culicoides oxystoma, C. imicola 
Common name: Biting midges or Biting gnats or punkies or No see-ums.
Hosts: Animals and man 
Distribution: Worldwide 
Morphology of fly

1. Size is 1-3 mm in length. They are the smallest blood sucking flies. They can easily pass through mosquito nets.

Food is a vital requirement for all living beings, as it provides the essential nutrients necessary for growth, development, and recovery. Humans depend on both plants and animals for nourishment, which we acquire through agricultural practices and animal farming. With the increasing global demand for food, crop yields have risen, which has led to a greater reliance on warehouses for grain storage. However, merely increasing food production is insufficient to combat hunger and malnutrition, as food security also heavily depends on ensuring that food is accessible to everyone. Crops, however, are exposed to various threats, such as pests, weeds, and diseases, which can drastically reduce yields if not managed adequately.
A significant issue is storage losses, which are driven by both biological elements (such as fungi, insects, and rodents) and environmental factors (such as unsuitable storage conditions or extreme temperatures). These losses result in various negative consequences, including:
• Reduced food quality
• Lower seed germination rates
• Loss of weight in crops
• Discolored produce
These problems can impede the marketing of harvested crops, leading to unsold goods and considerable losses for farmers and distributors.
To reduce these losses, it’s crucial to adopt proper measures like efficient treatments and continuous monitoring of storage conditions. Grains should be stored in environments that prevent deterioration. This can be achieved by ensuring thorough cleaning before storage, drying grains thoroughly (both under the sun and in the shade), and taking steps to control pests, including fumigation.

2.1 Introduction in Plant Breeding

A. Define/Explain the followings

1. Plant breeding: Plant breeding is defined as the art, science and technology of improving the genetic make-up of crop plants in relation to their economic use for mankind.

A few months back when Sharad Deshpande was talking about some processing tomatoes, I said that there is a lot of history behind processing tomatoes. He said then why don’t you speak on the subject and I said why not. So that is how this talk happened. First, I thought I will speak on breeding tomatoes as its history is even more interesting than what has happened later. I had heard a story when I went to USA for the first time in 1982. I was with Dr Charlie Rick, the father of tomato genetics, in his lab in USDA, UC, Davis, California. He talked about how the processing industry happened, who bred the types suitable for processing, how 80 percent of processing tomatoes of the USA came from California, where we are today and what could be done in this area.

4a. Intestinal Disorders
 
History of health claims
 
According to Bottazzi (1983) it was in 76 BC that the Roman historian Plinius recommended the use of fermented milk for treating gastroenteritis. Metchnikoff claimed that the intake of fermented milk containing Lactobacilli reduces the toxin producing bacteria, thereby increasing the longetivity of the host (Metchnikoff, 1908). Tissier (1905) showed that there was an increase in the Bifidobacteria in breast fed-infants, thus claiming that the administration of Bifidobacteria to infants suffering from diarrhea was very beneficial as they supersede the putrefactive bacteria that causes the disease. Intestinal beneficial microfloras are responsible to resist the disease (Bohnhoff et al., 1954).