eChapters

Nanotechnology is a multidisciplinary domain dedicated to manipulating materials at the nanometre scale (1-100 nanometres), where distinctive physical, chemical, and biological features arise. This transformative technology has applications across various sectors, including medicine, electronics, energy, agriculture, and environmental protection. The concept originated from Richard Feynman’s 1959 lecture, which envisioned the direct manipulation of atoms and molecules. Since then, advancements in microscopy and materials science have propelled nanotechnology into a significant area of applied science. In healthcare, it facilitates targeted drug delivery systems, improving therapeutic efficacy and reducing negative effects. Nanotechnology is also essential in ecological applications, including wastewater treatment and pollution management, where nanomaterials are employed for efficient filtration and remediation. Despite its potential, it raises ethical, safety, and regulatory concerns, including the long-term effects of nanoparticles on health and the environment. The lack of standardized regulations poses challenges for the safe deployment of nanotechnology in various applications. In agriculture, it facilitates the development of nanofertilizers and nano-pesticides, which improve nutrient delivery and reduce environmental impact. Recent research in India highlights the promising use of nano-bionoculants—nano-formulated bio-fertilizers that enhance plant growth and soil health by encapsulating beneficial microbes. Studies have shown that combining nanomaterials with bioinoculants can significantly improve crop yields and resilience to stress, indicating a shift towards sustainable agricultural practices. Nanotechnology represents a paradigm shift in science and technology. It offers innovative solutions to pressing global challenges while necessitating

Weather wisdom refers to the ability to understand, interpret, and apply knowledge of weather patterns, forecasts, and conditions to make informed decisions in various aspects of life. This concept encompasses a comprehensive understanding of meteorological principles, as well as the ability to analyze and apply weather information in a practical and effective manner. At its core, weather wisdom involves a grasp of basic meteorological concepts, such as atmospheric pressure, temperature, humidity, wind, and precipitation. This foundational knowledge serves as a framework for understanding more complex weather phenomena, such as storms, droughts, and heat waves.In addition to a solid understanding of weather fundamentals, weather wisdom also requires the ability to interpret forecasts, warnings, and advisories issued by meteorological agencies. This involves being able to comprehend and analyze weather forecast models, as well as understanding the limitations and uncertainties associated with weather prediction (Fig. 2.1). Furthermore, weather wisdom involves familiarity with local weather patterns, climate, and microclimates. This knowledge is essential for making informed decisions, as local weather conditions can vary significantly from regional or national forecasts. The application of weather knowledge is a critical component of weather wisdom. This involves being able to apply weather information to various aspects

Human Development and Family Studies has been prepared to strengthen conceptual understanding and examination readiness among students of community science and related disciplines. The book presents objective questions covering lifespan development, developmental challenges, early childhood care and education, guidance and counselling, marriage and family dynamics. Answer keys enable learners to assess their knowledge and identify areas requiring further study. A theoretical section provides a concise outline of important topics, supporting systematic revision and classroom instruction. The book is intended for undergraduate and postgraduate students, teachers and candidates preparing for university and competitive examinations in human development, family studies and early childhood education.

Cloud has been defined as a visible aggregation of minute water droplets and / or ice particles in the air, usually above the ground level.

CLASSIFICATION OF CLOUDS

Though confusion apparently arises from the number of kinds or species, the genera seems reasonably clear out, if we are able to recognize their main characteristics.

Clouds are usually classified according to their height and appearance. For convenience, we list them in descending order. High clouds, middle clouds and low clouds are some forms do not fit in any of these categories. But fortunately their particular characteristics make them easily identifiable as vertical development clouds. We must exercise some caution in studying on height. There is some seasonal as well as latitudinal variation and there is some overlapping from time to time. However, the appearance of clouds is quite distinctive for each height category.

Introduction

Impact of WTO or Globalization of Indian agrarian sector claims to extend benefit of trade even to widely spread villages. In India, a sizeable number of rural masses are self-employed and able to produce what is needed just for their livelihood. They cannot be brought into market exchange relationship. So, there is every possibility of their being deprived of expected benefits. Globalization, rather, will widen the disparity between who are associated with market and who are not. Developed countries seem to have held globalization as a powerful weapon in their hands. They are stressing on opening up of national boundaries for movement of their goods and capital to developing countries but they are putting lot of restrictions on technology and labour movement, which can be far more beneficial to developing countries.

Raw cashew nuts are a seasonal commodity and the trading season is from March to May. Growers usually supply the primary or village markets where small traders collect and supply the urban markets. The cashew trade is seldom handled by exclusive traders. Usually, those traders who collect other plantation products also trade in cashew. Due to the highly competitive nature of the cashew trade, growers have few marketing problems. When large quantities are collected by middlemen, the processors enter the marketing chain and make wholesale purchases. Grades and standards for cashew are yet to be introduced in India. Quality is generally determined by appearance and cutting tests that traders employ prior to purchase. The raw cashew nut market involves a large amount of capital where nearly 80 per cent of the produce is transacted within a period of 35 days. The current value of Indian production is estimated at around Rs. 10,000 million. This capital is made available by industry for procurement and processing operations.

There are no growers’ cooperatives or organizations for cashew marketing. In Kerala, however, the government has been involved in the procurement process and supply to large-scale processors. This adversely affected the cashew trade and has now been replaced by a free market policy.

In addition to the local production of nearly 7 lakh tonnes, India also imports a considerable quantity of raw nuts from several African and South-east Asian countries to satisfy the national processing capacity of about 12-14 lakh tonnes established in the country.

Theory

  The term ‘Management’ derived from word ‘manage’ derived from French word menage means ‘housekeeping’.

 According to Knootz and Weihrich 1988, ‘Management as the process of designing and maintaining an environment in which individuals, working together in groups, efficiently accomplish selected aims’. 

According to Louis E.Boone and David L.Kurtz ‘management as the use of people and other resources to accomplish objectives’.

POSDCORB is an acronym widely used in the field of Management and Public Administration., it first appeared in a 1937 staff paper by Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urwick. The acronym stands for steps in the administrative process: Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, Coordinating, Reporting and Budgeting.

Introduction

In recent past vegetable cultivation took enormous turn over because of increased population, inflow of tourists and increased per capita income in the Bay Islands as well as India. Population in these islands is increasing due to immigration of people from main land and the land area is limited.

Biological control is a strategy which employs utilization of natural enemies to reduce the damage caused by noxious organisms to tolerable levels (De Bach and Rosen, 1991). This is the most benign method for reducing pest population in vegetable ecosystem. It opens an amicable platform for production of organic vegetables with good export value. Since the late 1950s, much of the insect control in vegetables has been based on the use of synthetic chemical insecticides. Insecticides are relatively easy to use and have generally provided effective pest control. It is likely that they will always be a component of pest management programs. But, insecticides have some undesirable attributes. They usually present some degree of hazard to the applicator and other people who may come in contact with them, they can leave residues that some find unacceptable; they can contaminate soil and water and affect wildlife, aquatic life and other non-target organisms, they can interfere with beneficial organisms, such as pollinating insects and the natural enemies of pests. The insects also can develop resistance to insecticide. For these reasons, there is growing interest among farmers, entomologists and gardeners to explore and adopt methods that reduce pesticide use. 

Aphids: Myzus persicae, Lipaphis erysimi and Brevicoryne brassicae Aphididae
 
Aphids suck the sap from potato foliage, causing wrinkling, cupping and downward curling of young leaves. The older leaves will become yellow, wilt and fall off.  They also excrete honeydew on which sooty mould develops covering affected parts with a thin superficial black coating that hinders photosynthetic activity of leaves resulting in stunted growth of plants. In addition, they also act as vectors, for transmitting potato leaf roll virus. Major damage by M.persicae and A. gossypii is through transmission of potato leaf roll virus.

3.1. Natural cross-pollination

Breeding procedures in any plant species of economic importance are guided by its reproductive system particularly, pollination mechanism. In the cereal crops such as maize, pearl millet etc., where cross-pollination is facilitated by wind, the breeders have developed schemes for commercial exploitation of dominance and epistatic genetic variation through hybrid and population breeding. In contrast in self-pollinated crops, the efforts are always made to exploit additive genetic variation primarily through pedigree and mass selection.
 
In pulses, self-pollination is a rule and pigeonpea is no exception. However under field conditions, occurrence of hybrid plants in the populations is not uncommon; and it happens due to some degree of natural out-crossing that took place in the preceding generation. This type of partial natural out-crossing in pigeonpea is affected by a variety of insects (Fig 10) which forage on its large flowers to collect the nectar. These minor incidences of out-crossing are the primary source of varietal deterioration. Recently, the pigeonpea breeders converted this constraint into an opportunity for genetic enhancement of yield through exploitation of hybrid vigor and developing commercial hybrids.

Abstract

A promising strain/seedling have been identified that produces only male flowers (small and pink tinged) on the ventral side of the current season’s shoot all along its length. As many as 24 flowers per shoot were observed. The seedling continued to flower for about one month which attracts large number of honey bees. The pollen is also produced in abundance that dehisces early in the morning. Preliminary observations on the flowering behaviour and pollen studies have revealed that it can be used as a suitable polliniser for persimmon cultivars in general and Hachiya cultivar in particular.

In recent years, there has been a considerable interest in the new technological interventions for enhanced livestock productivity in the Indian sub-continent, because of the increased demand for livestock products for human consumption. Bypass nutrients defined as a nutrients fed in such a form that provides an increase in the flow of the nutrient (s) unchanged to the abomasum, yet is available to the more important nutrient (high BV) should escape from the rumen or face minimum ruminal fermentation. The reasons for protecting different nutrients are based on their mode of utilization in the rumen. The literature on the effect of the bypass fat and protein on nutrient utilization, milk production and reproductive performance has been reviewed and presented in following subheads

Introduction

Fertilizers in India, are mostly applied either through broadcasting, foliar application or using seed cum fertilizer drills. With the introduction of micro irrigation systems, the application of fertilizers along with the irrigation water became promising and is gaining momentum. The goal of fertilizer application through irrigation is to maximize the uptake rate of fertilizers in order to minimize the losses.

There is no cereal in the world which has no immense patentability as in maize and that’s why it is called the “Queen of cereals”. It is the world’s leading cereals crop after rice and wheat. It is one of most important cereals of Nepal. At national level, it stands second position after rice in term of area and fourth in term of production after rice, potato and sugarcane. Maize is the most important cereals crop of hill and mid hills of Nepal. It is grown single as well as mixed cropping with millets or legumes or potato. Maize crop in hill is grown as rainfed farming. Generally, farmer of such region does not apply chemical fertilizer but they fertilize the land with organic manures in three seasons viz., rainy, winter and spring season. In rainy season it grown in upland while in spring season in low land. The winter maize is grown in Terai and inner Terai in low land as well as upland.

Black pepper is popularly known as ‘King of spices’, it is the dried berry of the pepper vine, so important in the International Trade Market. The crop has its origin in the tropical rain forests of Western Ghats of India.  Kerala is the leading State in the production of black pepper with the ubiquitous presence of this crop in coconut, arecanut and coffee plantations. Chief pepper producing countries are Indonesia, Brazil, Malaysia, Cambodia, Sri Lanka and Vietnam.

It is recognized in developed countries that the production of silage of high quality cultivated forage can be a valuable component for the development of a high-performing and low-cost system of animal production, using a relatively low level of purchased concentrates. However, this appears inappropriate for smallholders in tropical countries, primarily due to lack or high cost, or both, of equipment for harvesting and conservation and production of cultivated forage being often limited due to lack of available land. Many agricultural, agro-industrial and fishery by-products have potential as animal feeds. Most farmers in developing countries rely for their food security on the cultivation of cereals, root crops and high-value crops such as fruits and vegetables, which understandably take priority in the allocation of land. Fruit, vegetables and root crops are increasingly integrated in the farming system and play a key role as staples in the human diet in most developing countries.

It is defined as the reaction of living tissue to injury which begins following a sub-lethal injury to tissues and ends with complete healing. The purpose of inflammation is to destroy and remove the irritant and to repair the damaged tissue. 

Causes
    1.    Pathogenic organisms: Bacteria, virus, fungi, protozan and parasites.
    2.    Chemical poisons: Acid and alkalies. 
    3.    Mechanical or thermal injuries. 
    4.    Immune reaction: Antigen antibody reaction.

The word protein was first coined in 1838 to emphasize the importance of this class of molecules. The word is derived from the Greek word proteios which means “of the first- rank”. Proteins are polymers/macro molecules made up of several amino acids. When there are more than 50 amino acids in a chain, the polypeptide is normally called a protein. Each protein in the cells of living beings has a unique sequence of amino acids that determines its biological function. The proteins are folded into specific defined structures, which are maintained by a large number of relatively weak bonds. The  three  dimensional structure is well defined and suited to it’s specific function.

Very small changes in the structure can modify the function. Hence, it is important to know the structure of proteins to understand their behavior and function. The biological activity of proteins depends on maintenance of folded conformation. Proteins fold into well defined three dimensional shapes and they are able to recognize their corresponding substrates or antigen molecules and bind them tightly. The protein structure has been classified into four different levels based on the folded conformation of the protein.