eChapters

As milk to a cow or fruit to a tree, ore is to Earth Sciences. Different academic and scientific aspects of geology are of no consequence to a common man. Ores and ore minerals from which valuable constituents could be extracted profitably is what the world is after- be it the continental masses, oceanic depths, desolate icy Antarctic tracts or now, even other planets of the solar system. The subject of economic geology is thus a subject of greatest interest among other natural sciences.

This last section will dwell on the theme of metallic and non metallic ore deposits. The first chapter begins with fundamental definitions, signifying the importance of minerals in human affairs. It also looks at ore minerals against the background of average crustal composition and presents a glossary of important terms in economic geology. The second chapter is a lengthy chapter devoted to the ways ore deposits are formed ( ore genesis). Broadly, the processes are described under two categories, the internal processes and the surface processes. Fuel minerals are taken separately towards the end of this chapter. Chapter III briefly introduces the relationship between location of minerals deposits to the revolutionary theme of global tectonics which attempts to answer why a mineral deposits occurs where it occurs.

The fourth chapter is devoted entirely to the Indian Mineral Deposits. It begins with a few important themes of mineral economics and dwells on the description of important Indian Mineral Deposits as to their geology, geography and economic potential. Lastly, the fifth chapter exclusively deals with the facts and figures of the Indian Mineral Industry presenting recent available data of resources, production, import, export and future prospects. It also gives a brief introduction to the important geo-scientific organizations of the country.

A. Tissue culture and micro propagation
Tissue culture and micro propagation are essential techniques for the propagation of various spices and medicinal plants, allowing the rapid production of diseasefree and genetically identical plants. The overview of techniques apply are as follows:
1. Black Pepper (Piper nigrum)
1a. Tissue culture in Black Pepper
Callus induction from leaf and stem explants, followed by somatic embryogenesis. The protocol for black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) tissue culture involves several stages, including callus induction, shoot regeneration, root initiation, hardening, and implementation of tissue culture techniques. The general outline of the process based on recent advancements are as follows.
a. Callus induction
• Explants: Typically, leaves, stems, or nodes are used as explants.
• Medium: Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with auxins like 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) @ 0.5-2.0mg/l or Naphthalene acetic acid (NAA)@ 0.5-1.0mg/l is commonly used to induce callus
formation.
• Conditions: Cultures are usually maintained in dark conditions at 25°C to 28°C to promote callus induction.

Classification refers to grouping of individuals with similar identities related to genetic make up, evolution or climatic requirements. The major units are order, family, sub-family, genus, species, variety/cultivar and strain. Monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous are two major classes and most of the fruits are covered under dicotyledonous family. Different basis of classification of fruits are: Botanical; Ecological; Stem morphology; Fruit morphology; Flowering habit; Respiration rate; Photoperiodism; Shade tolerance; Drought tolerance; Soil texture and topography; Soil reaction; Soil tolerance; Horticultural; Bearing habit; Inflorescence type; pollination types; Type of self incompatibility; Type of dichogamy; Edible parts; Center of origin; Ploidy levels; Longevity of fruit crops; Fruit size and Nutrient contents of fruits.

Minerals are the building blocks of the earth’s crust. Derived inorganically, either as chemical elements or more often as chemical compounds, minerals are essentially solid. Minerals often form crystals, while aggregate of minerals constitute a rock. Mineralogy is the discipline devoted to the study of minerals including their formation, occurrence, properties, composition and classification . Needless to say, the subject of mineralogy is the foundation of crystallography, petrology and other branches of geology.

Section A dealing with Minerals comprises nine chapters. Chapter I presents salient features of the earth including composition. and structure of the crust mantle and core. Chapter II presents their categories and the how minerals derive their names. Since minerals are essentially a combination of atoms and molecules the significance of chapter III which deals with crystal chemistry cannot be over emphasized.. Chapter IV and V deal with physical and optical properties of minerals which are crucial in identifying them in hand specimens and under the polarising microscope. Classification of minerals and their occurrence is dealt in a general way in chapter VI while descriptive mineralogy is presented in Chapters VII ( Silicate Mnerals) and VIII ( Non-Silicate Mnerals). Minerals are no doubt a subject of serious scientific curiosity but ultimately their use to man is by far the most important theme. Chapter IX therefore is devoted exclusively to different uses that are minerals are put to. The chapter ends with eye opening information as to the quantum of minerals that man uses, taking one of the most industrialized nation USA as an example.

Introduction

Spices hold a special place in world trade and were a catalyst in many historical events, discoveries, wars and inventions. It has even been cited as an important element in the spread of knowledge and culture. Spices are non-leafy parts of plants used as a flavoring or seasoning. Asia is known as ‘Land of Spices’ as it is the place of origin, production, consumption and export of most spices. Out of the world’s 70 plant species grown as spices, 13 are considered major spices produced in Asia. Spices had many uses, from adding flavour to food to medicinal properties, but only grew in a few places. In the last decade, the annual average growth in spice production was 4.3% and trade in spices grew at an average of 5.8% /year. More sophisticated consumers, health-conscious eating habits (but also the rise in the amount of processed foods that use herbs and spices as inputs), rising incomes, increased world trade and globalisation are driving this new era of profitability. Spices are ideal commodities for international trade. They are normally exported in raw or dried form and are usually easy to store and transport. Consequently they do not need expensive infrastructure such as cold chain management or advanced storage facilities and they are not particularly time sensitive. In addition, they are recognised as high value products that can be produced relatively easily on small farms and do not require investments in advanced technology and machinery.

Introduction

Fruits are undoubtedly God’s gift to mankind. Fruits are protective foods as they contain vitamins, minerals and enzymes, necessary for better functioning of human body and for fighting diseases. History of fruits is as old as that of Adam and Eve who ate the forbidden apple. Date palm seems to be the earliest fruit cultivated by man as early as 7000 B.C. Pomegranate is also one of the oldest fruits which was under cultivation as early as 3500 B.C. During ancient times, monks survived solely on fruits and milk giving an indication about importance of fruits and antiquity of fruits in India. India is the place of origin of mango, banana, phalsa, jack fruit, bael, aonla and a few citrus fruits whereas all other fruits are introduced from foreign countries. Litchi, loquat, persimmon, peach and sweet orange are from China; papaya, guava, sapota, avocado, custard apple and pineapple are from tropical America; and apple, plum, pear, date palm, mangosteen, strawberry, cherry, almond, walnut, apricot, grape and pomegranate are from the Central Asiatic Regions.

1.1. Origin and distribution
• South East Asia, with the greatest number of species found in Borneo, Java, Sumatra, and Malay Peninsula.
1.2. Varieties
• Neelum, Bangalora, Alphonso, Rumani, Banganapalli, Kalepad, Peter, PKM 1, PKM 2, Senthura, Jahangir, Mulgoa, Himayuddin, Paiyur 1, Mallika, Amrapali, Salem Bangalora, Arka Anmol, Arka Aruna, Arka Neelkiran, Arka Puneeth, Sindhu, Ratna and Arka Suprabath

1. GENERAL POMOLOGY

Word pomology: Derived from Greek word ‘pome’ meaning development of fruit from inferior ovary and ‘logos’ meaning to study.

Father of systematic pomology: De Candolle.

Temperate fruits are popularly known in India as hill fruits or cold region fruits.

India ranks 1^st in productivity of grapes, banana and papaya.

Ratio of Chlorophyll a to chlorophyll b is highest in C⁴ plants.

Gibberellic acid is enhanced by exposing plants to red light.

The life line tree of ‘Thar Desert’ is Prosopis cineraria.

Grape of the desert is Salvadora oleoides.