eChapters

As per United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), organic farming is defined as a system which avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetic inputs (such as fertilizers, pesticides, hormones, feed additives etc.) to a maximum extent and feasible rely upon crop rotations, crop residues, animal manure, off farm organic waste, mineral grade rock additives and biological system of nutrient mobilization and plant protection. FAO suggested that organic agriculture is a unique production management system which promotes and entrance agro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity and this is accomplished by using on-farm agronomic, biological and mechanical methods is exclusion of all synthetic off-farm inputs.

Introduction Broccoli (Brassica oleracea L. var. italica) having chromosome number 2n=2x=18 is a native of Mediterranean region. The broccoli was developed in eastern Mediterranean region and Italy is the main diversification which was later introduced into England about 1720. It is a cool season crop which produces fleshy green flower heads arranged on branches sprouting from thick edible stalk in such way that it looks like a miniature bonsai tree. It has the same family as cabbage and cauliflower. Even though it resembles cauliflower by forming head like structure but it has longer flower stalks with loose large green terminal head (10 to 20 cm). In Italy broccoli is called as broccoli which means “the flowering crest of a cabbage.” Due to the presence of bountiful nutritious properties, it is also known as “Crown Jewel of Nutrition”. It is a great source of vitamins A, B and C and minerals like iron, fibre, calcium, zinc, magnesium etc. Apart from the minerals and vitamin it also a rich source of riboflavin, thiamine and niacin.

Haemangiosarcoma is a malignant tumour of vascular endothelial cells. It is more commonly seen in aged dogs.

Background and Technology intervention

Instead of open channel irrigation, intervention of PVC pipeline system using gravitational hydraulic pressure can convey efficient water without the use of power. This will reduce conveyance loss and improve timely and equitable distribution of water to all farmers. As large number of open wells with pump sets are available, uninterrupted power supply is not available for on time irrigation during summer seasons. During such times, savings from tank water will be more helpful allowing the farmer to manage groundwater greatly.

Introduction

The agricultural landscape is not just about cultivating fields; it's a narrative woven with resilience, dedication, and untold stories of women who have been the backbone of this fundamental sector for centuries. Their contributions, often overlooked or undervalued, are the bedrock of agricultural sustenance worldwide. Throughout history, women have played multifaceted roles in agriculture, nurturing crops, tending to livestock, and managing households while being instrumental in the evolution of farming practices. Despite their pivotal roles, societal norms and systemic biases have marginalized their contributions, limiting access to resources, land ownership, education, and decision-making power.

Introduction

Aquaculture is the fastest growing food producing sector. According to FAO (2016), Aquaculture is the farming of aquatic organisms including fish, crustaceans, mollusks, and aquatic plants in all types of environments including ponds, lakes, oceans, and rivers. Aquatic resources have played an essential role in ensuring food security by supplying the enormous demand for animal protein. Around 17% of animal protein consumed by people worldwide comes from fish (Shah and Mraz, 2020). Fish provide the highest quality protein sources, essential amino acids, fatty, vitamins, and minerals which are lacking in others (Kwasek et al., 2020). The world population will exceed 9 billion by 2040. Therefore, to feed a rapidly increasing population, aquaculture production must increase globally

Requirements: Dissecting pan with wax pad, dissecting pins, forceps, hand lenses and scissors

Procedure

Place the specimen in the dissecting pan ventral side up. Use scissors to cut through the exoskeleton‘s ventral side from the head to the posterior end of the abdomen.

Pull the cut sides apart and observe the internal organs. Pin the sides of the insect to the dissecting pan. The observation of the reproductive systems of males and females are as follows:

Female reproductive system

The main functions of the female reproductive system are egg production and storage of male spermatozoa until the eggs are ready to be fertilized. The basic components of the female system are paired ovaries, which empty their mature oocytes (eggs) via the calyces (Calyx) into the lateral oviduct which unite to form the common (median) oviduct.

Z -distribution: It is a probability density function and a normal distribution that has a mean equal to zero and a standard deviation equal to one and that is used in testing hypotheses about means or proportions of samples drawn from populations whose population standard deviations are known.

Zeatin: Zeatin is a cytokinin C10 H13 N5 O first isolated from the endosperm of Indian corn.

Zeaxanthin: Zeaxanthin is an isomer of lutein occurring in fruits and vegetables (spinach and corn) (Plate 343, 344 and 345).

Zein: Zein is a protein from Indian corn that lacks lysine and tryptophan and is used in making textile fibers, plastics, printing inks, edible coatings, and adhesives and sizes.

4.1 Introduction

Water pollution is the contamination of water by an excess amount of a substance that can cause harm to human beings and/or the ecosystem. The level of water pollution depends on the abundance of the pollutant, the ecological impact of the pollutant, and the use of the water. Pollutants are derived from biological, chemical, or physical processes. Although natural processes such as volcanic eruptions or evaporation sometimes can cause water pollution, most pollution is derived from human, land-based activities (Figure 4.2). Water pollutants can move through different water reservoirs, as the water carrying them progresses through stages of the water cycle (Figure 4.1). Water residence time (the average time that a water molecule spends in a water reservoir) is very important to pollution problems because it affects pollution potential. Water in rivers has a relatively short residence time, so pollution usually is there only briefly. Of course, pollution in rivers may simply move to another reservoir, such as the ocean, where it can cause further problems. Groundwater is typically characterized by slow flow and longer residence time, which can make groundwater pollution particularly problematic. Finally, pollution residence time can be much greater than the water residence time because a pollutant may be taken up for a long time within the ecosystem or absorbed onto sediment.

Ice bank cooling: Storing of fruit and vegetable in storage chamber with positive ventilation and system countries where ice formation is allowed during night time (as electricity cost of night is less as compared to the day time). Melting of ice occurs during day time and with proper air circulation by means of ventilation process, approximately 0.5 10C temperature with 90% RH in the chamber is maintained. Ice Bank Cooler / Air forced cooler leads to desiccation of the produce (Plate 359). So use forced air high humidity cooler and these are known as Ice Bank Cooler. Ice bank coolers are useful for strawberry.

Ice cream: Ice cream may be define as frozen dairy product made by suitable blending and processing of cream and other milk products together with sugar and flavour.

Ice cream cone: A thin crisp edible cone for holding ice cream and filled with ice cream.

Ice point: It is the temperature of equilibrium between ice and water under normal atmospheric pressure (Plate 360).

Ichthylogy: It is the branch of the zoology that deals with the study of fishes (Pisces).

Icicle: It is small tapering piece of the ice formed by freezing of dropping water (Plate 361).

Importance and uses

Walnut is a valuable nut crop that is grown in several regions of the world, including India. The nut is a rich source of several nutrients, including protein, fiber, omega-3 fatty acids, and antioxidants. Walnuts have several health benefits, including reducing the risk of heart disease, improving brain function, and reducing inflammation. They are also used in several industries, including food, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics.

Walnuts have been an important food source for humans for thousands of years. In ancient times, they were believed to have medicinal properties and were used to treat several ailments (Martinez et al., 2010). Today, they are used in the food industry to produce confectionery, bakery products, and as an ingredient in several cuisines. They are also used in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries due to their anti inflammatory and anti-aging properties (Alasalvar et al., 2010; Bolling et al., 2011).

Walnuts are a rich source of antioxidants, which are important for maintaining good health. Antioxidants help to neutralize free radicals in the body, which can cause cell damage and lead to several chronic diseases, including cancer and heart disease (Alasalvar et al., 2010). In addition, walnuts are an excellent source of omega-3 fatty acids, which are important for brain health and reducing inflammation in the body (Bolling et al., 2011). Walnuts also contain fiber, which is important for maintaining healthy digestion and reducing the risk of colon cancer (Martinez et al., 2010).

A watershed is a geohydrological unit or all the land and water area bounded by a divide which contributes runoff to a common point. Watershed is considered to be synonymous with ‘catchment basin’ and ‘drainage basin’. In watershed management approach, development is not only confined to agricultural lands but also covers the area, starting from the highest point of the land to the outlet of the natural stream. Watershed management becomes increasingly important as a way to improve livelihood of people while conserving and regenerating their natural resources.

Watershed management is the process of creating and implementing plans, programmes and projects to sustain and enhance watershed functions that affect the plant, animal and human communities within a watershed boundary. It implies the judicious use of all the resources,i.e., land, water and vegetation in an area to prevent soil erosion, improve water availability and increase food, fodder, fuel and timber on sustained basis.

The global food supply chain is a complex system that encompasses all stages of food production, processing, distribution, and consumption. This article provides an in-depth exploration of the journey food takes from farms to tables worldwide. It examines the various components of the supply chain, including agricultural production, food processing, logistics, retail, and consumption. The article also addresses key challenges such as food security, sustainability, and safety, and discusses the impact of globalization and technological advancements. Through case studies and examples, the article highlights the interconnected nature of the food supply chain and emphasizes the importance of cooperation among stakeholders to ensure a resilient and sustainable global food system.

1. A plant cell constitutes the_____________ per cent of water. (80-90%)
2. Photosynthesis is the process of conversion of_____________ energy into _____________ energy. (Radiant, Chemical)
3. Dark reaction of photosynthesis occurs in_____________ and light reaction occurs in _____________ region of chloroplast. (Matrix, Lamellae)
4. The connecting link between glycolysis and Kreb’s cycle is_____________. (Pyruvic acid)
5. _____________ is responsible for turgidity of plant cells. (Osmosis)
6. A diffusion of liquids through a semi-permeable membrane is known as_____________. (Osmosis)
7. The diffusion of solvent particles into a living cell is known as_____________. (Endo-osmosis)
8. The diffusion of solvent particles out of a living cell is known as_____________. (Exo-osmosis)
9. The outward pressure exerted by the cell solution on the cell wall which is developed due to osmotic diffusion of water is called as_____________. (Turgor pressure)

With the recent advances in cognitive science and applied ethology, it become imperative to assess the effect of various negative stimuli on the animal welfare and meat quality in goats during slaughter. The present study was designed to assess the effect of exposure of goats to slaughter ambient such as the smell of blood, vocalization, noise, movement of equipment, and unfamiliar workers could initiate stress responses, thereby affecting animal welfare and meat quality. Boer cross bucks (age 8-12 months of age, 25-30 kg live weight, n=18) were halal slaughtered into three groups viz., Control (slaughtered alone), E (exposed to act of slaughter), and S (slaughtered in front of E). The vocalization and avoidance behavior were present in 50% of goats upon exposure to slaughter ambient. The time to death and bleed out percentage did not differ significantly among treatments. The exposure of the goats to the slaughter resulted in a significant (p<0.05) increase in the nor-adrenaline, and β-endorphin. Based on the present study, it can be concluded that exposure to slaughter ambient had an effect on behavioral responses, carcass, and blood biochemical factors. Thus, the present study highlighted the issue of emotional stress and slaughter empathy in goats. These findings could help in harmonizing all practices of slaughter and improving animal welfare while fulfilling religious and customary demands.

Anti-pathogen Chemicals
The chemical substances that help to retard the activity of pathogens like fungus, bacteria and nematodes are said to be anti-pathogen chemicals.
Aim of use of chemicals in plant disease control
The aim and of use of chemicals in plant disease control are
• To create a toxic barrier between the host surface or tissue and the pathogen .
• To eradicate the pathogen present at a particular site on the host, such as seed, foliage, roots etc.
Functions of chemicals in plant disease control
• Reduction in inoculum density or eradication of inoculum from source of growth, multiplication and survival.
• Inactivaion or destruction of the pathogen when it lands on the treated surface, and
• Cure of the diseased plant.

Introduction
Wild marigold (Tagetes minuta) is also famous as African marigold and mint marigold, valued for its higher content and superior in essential oil quality among all the cultivated species undergenusTagetes. Marigold/Genda (Tagetes species) are mostly grown for scented flowers for utilization in functions all over the world. The flowers and leaves are of different varieties, which are identified by their distinct odouriferous oil.
Origin
It is inhabitant to the grasslands of temperate region in South America and now become widespread throughout the world. In India, it has been customized in the North-West Himalayas up-to an altitudes ranging from1000-2500 meters in H.P., U.P. and J&K. Now-a-days, Tagetes minuta is considered as an extensive weed in South Europe, Africa, South Asia, Australia, and Madagascar (Chalchat et al., 1995). It is found growing naturally as a noxious
weed in the wild and arable farming systems. The high demand of its essential oil may leads into reduction of the wild resources, thus it is essential to start systematic cultivation in sub-tropical to temperate agro-climatic zones all over the world, mainly in the region of Indian subcontinent (Singh et al., 2003).

Introduction
Potato is a tuber crop belonging to the Family solanaceae. In India large number of insects are attacking potato both in field as well as storage thereby causing both direct and indirect losses to farmers.
Distribution
Potatoes are cultivated in almost all states of India, but the majority of the crop is grown in the Indo-Gangetic plains of North India. The major potato growing states are Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Punjab, Bihar, and Karnataka (Rana and Anwer, 2018).
Distribution
Most potato cultivating fields of North India
Host plants: Carrot, broccoli, cabbage, mustard, radish, cucumber, pepper, wheat, rice (Holman, 2009).

Introduction
The conceptual foundation of environmental DNA (eDNA) can be traced back to French criminologist Edmond Locard’s principle that “every contact leaves a trace.” eDNA, often referred to as the “blueprint of life,” represents the genetic material shed by organisms into their environment. This innovative approach allows scientists to obtain biological information without directly interacting with or disturbing the organisms. eDNA technology is particularly advantageous in studying megadiverse ecosystems, as it enables the isolation and analysis of genetic material from various environmental samples, such as soil, water, and air. The approach of environmental DNA (eDNA) has its roots in metagenomics, which has long been used to study microbial communities
in soil, water, and sediment. The concept of eDNA was first applied in microbiological research on marine environments (Orgam et al., 1987; Handelsman, 2004). Early breakthroughs in biodiversity monitoring included the detection of invasive species, such as Rana catesbeiana (American bullfrog), in French swamps, demonstrating the potential of eDNA in ecological studies
(Díaz-Ferguson and Moyer, 2014). The persistence of eDNA also depends on the species and habitat: in freshwater, it may last between 15 and 30 days for fish and amphibians, while in marine environments, it typically persists for shorter durations, ranging from 0.9 to 7 days for marine mammals. These variations underscore the importance of understanding environmental and biological factors when applying eDNA methods for monitoring biodiversity and ecosystem health. The transport of eDNA in rivers is particularly rapid, with genetic material potentially traveling tens of kilometers from its source. This dynamic propagation must be accounted for when designing experiments and interpreting results.

Poultry sector has been divided into two broad classes based on the management practices. First one is commercial poultry farming which is the well-organized sector. Second one is backyard poultry farming which plays supportive role for rural economy. The commercial farming practices can divide into two subclasses: layer and broiler industry. Commercial poultry farming provides primary source of income to the farmers and widely influenced by market driven forces. Backyard poultry farming comprises dual purpose birds as both layer and broiler. It supports the rural household with nutritional security, subsidiary income generation and provides the employment to women which
Egg production by backyard and commercial poultry farm
Out of total egg production of 103.3 billion numbers eggs, commercial poultry farming is producing 84.91 billion number eggs whereas, backyard poultry farming is producing 18.41 billion numbers contributing 82.2 percent and 17.8 percent of total production of egg respectively (BAHS, 2019).