eChapters

Completely Randomized Design (CRD)

The simplest design using the two essential principles of replication and randomization is the CRD. Suppose that we have t treatments (or t levels of a factor) under comparison and ith treatment is to be replicated r times, for i = 1,2, … t . A particular case of this is equal replication for different treatments, where r1=r2= =r6=r, so that n=rt.

Fracture in animals occur frequently and is a concern of economic importance to the owner. The practice of keeping them as pets in households rather than in sheds or in confinements have increased the chance of encountering accidents like fall from coat, terrace, limbs being trapped in drains, being hit by vehicles, dog bites etc. leading to fracture. Fracture management in small animals/small ruminants can be successfully achieved owing to their light weight; they tolerate external coaptation relatively well and can ambulate in three limbs well in order to spare the injured limb. Fracture can be repaired successfully with regional anaesthetic techniques which they can tolerate very well. The constraint of cost effectiveness can be balanced by carefully selecting the appropriate technique according to the weight and limb involved. Many economical skeletal fixation technique have been evolved which can well fit into the budget of the owner. Knowledge of simple techniques can enhance healing in cases of bone loss and management of infection.

Fracture site stabilization

Fracture repair is usually elective, hence initial support and care of the fracture is necessary to prevent further trauma and complications like communication of fracture site to the exterior through wound or sinus and chances of infection. Initial support to splint the bone not only limits the movements but also supports the soft tissues from untoward consequences. Limb splinting reduces edema and pain, preserves neurovascular supply to the limb till the day of operation and helps to transport the animal safely. Fracture to limbs caudal to mid radius ulna/ tibia can safely be stabilized by splints or full limb casts. Wood, pliable bamboo or split poly vinyl chloride pipes positioned on the caudal and lateral aspects of the limbs and supported firmly with tapes or bandages can serve the purpose. Fracture proximal to mid radius ulna or tibia should not be stabilized using splits since the fulcrum effect created due to this can augment soft tissue injury. Careful assessment of the viability of the structures caudal to fracture site should be assessed prior to a decision regarding surgery, devitalized tissue hamper healing and is a subject to be considered for amputation.

Duck farming in India is characterized by nomadic, extensive, seasonal, and is still held in the hands of small and marginal farmers. Traditionally Assam, West Bengal and Kerala are the major consumer states for duck egg and meat and one of the reasons is that duck egg and meat highly suits and impart taste for their fish based culinary preparations.

Different housing system for Duck rearing

In general, ducks do not require elaborate houses. The house should be well ventilated, dry, and rat proof. In semi-intensive system of rearing, the house should have easy access to outside run as the ducks prefer to come out during the day time, winter and rainy time. 

Introduction

High population pressure has forced us to plough 46% of our country area for food production. The present productivity of 12.36 tones/ha of fruits needs to be raised to 40.0 tones/ha by using N, P₂O₅, K₂O with other inputs, since recommended ratio is 0.75:0.50:1.00. To achieve this target, the present day requirement of 0.67 million tones N, 0.46 million tones P₂O₅ and 0.91 million tones K₂O has been raised to 1.07, 0.58 and 1.14 million tones, respectively in order to supply the recommended ratio of fertilizers to an area of 3.65 million ha growing fruits (Yadav, 1999). Similarly in vegetables, the present production level of 13.41 tones/ha to be raised to 40 tones/ha requires 1.25 million tones of N, P₂O₅ and K₂O combined at the ratio of 1.33: 0.88 and 1.00.

Structure

Structural unit of edible portion of most fruits and vegetables is the parenchyma cells and makes up bulk of cells. A parenchyma cell is rather thin walled and may be polygonal or cubical in shape.  Walls of parenchyma cells in young plants are composed almost entirely of fibrils of cellulose. In parenchyma cells of plants actively metabolising protoplast portion represents only about 5% of total cell volume. This protoplast is rather film like and is pressed against cell wall by large water filled central vacuole.  Protoplast has inner and outer semi permeable membrane layers between which is confined cytoplasm and its nucleus. 

1. Introduction

Malaria remains one of the most serious tropical diseases and kills an estimated one to two million people each year worldwide (Snow et al., 2005). Spread of drug resistance has played an important role in the occurrence and severity of epidemic diseases in the world (Majori, 2004). As a consequence of resistance to drugs such as quinine, chloroquine, primaquine and mefloquine, the vehemence of malaria has increased in many endemic regions of the world (Schlitzer, 2007; Basco et al., 1994). One of the biggest challenges to malaria control is the emergence and spread of drug resistant P. falciparum strains. Although human malaria transmitted by female Anopheles mosquitoes has four Plasmodium species as its aetiological agents P. falciparum, P. vivax, P. ovaleand P. malariae, the most widespread and severe disease is caused by P. falciparum, which transiently infects the liver before invading red blood cells of the mammalian host. Clinical manifestations occur at the erythrocytic stage and can include fever, chills, prostration and anaemia, as well as delirium, metabolic acidosis, cerebral malaria and multi-organ system failure, which may be followed by coma and death (Fidock et al., 2004; Deprez-Poulain et al., 2005, De Sa et al., 2009).The success of the natural product-based antimalarials such as quinine and artemisinin has showed the importance of plants as potential source of antimalarial agents. Consequently, numerous efforts to identify antiplasmodial activities from plants traditionally used as remedies for fever and malaria (Chen et al., 1997; Havsteen, 2002;

INTRODUCTION

In India, temperate fruits are grown successfully at locations above 3000 feet mean sea level in hilly areas of Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttranchal, Sikkim, parts of North Eastern states like Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Meghalaya etc. Mount Abu hills of Rajsthan and Nilgiris of Tamil Nadu also provide suitable agro-climatic conditions for growing some temperate fruits. Apart from apple; pear, peach, plum, apricot, cherry, almond and walnut are major temperate fruits being grown over 3.38 lakh hectares of area and play pivotal role in the economy of hilly farmers whose land is not otherwise considered suitable for traditional agriculture. They contribute about 11.5 percent of total area under fruits in the country, yet production is only 5 percent of the total. Incidence of many fungal, bacterial and viral diseases in these fruit crops is a major impediment in their successful cultivation and soil borne pathogens are of foremost importance and are responsible for premature death of the trees in the orchards. Amongst these, white root rot, collar rot, seedling blight, crown gall, hairy root are the major constraints which can cause as high as 40 percent damage in certain situations (Sharma and Sharma, 2001). Threat from the replant problem is causing concern due to its negative effect on the establishment of replanted sites due to soil sickness.

Agricultural systems are complex, and understanding this complexity requires systematic research under shrinking agricultural research resources. Field experimentation can only be used to investigate a very limited number of variables under a few site-specific conditions. The crop growth simulation models simulate crop growth, development and yield taking into account the effects of weather, genetics, soil water, carbon and nitrogen, planting, irrigation and fertilizer (e.g. Nitrogen, Phosphorus) management. Ofthe many factors that potentially affect the growth of plants, the two that are most responsive to management are water and nitrogen. It is therefore not surprising that most crop models include routines to handle responses to water and nitrogen. Less frequently do models attempt to describe limitations due to other soil constraints (Probert and Keating, 2000). In the context of integrated nutrient management, the performance of a crop model depends mainly on its ability to adequately describe the release of nutrients from diverse inputs and their uptake by the crop.

Origins and genesis of a crop simulation model

Crop simulation model approach was started near about 50 years ago, in early 1960s when early simple crop models were developed for estimation of transpiration and photosynthesis. The first step towards crop modeling was the development of simple models to estimate light interception and photosynthesis (Loomis and williams, 1963; De wit, 1965 and Duncan et al., 1967). There are many crop growth simulation models. Some are more generic in nature while others are built for specific purposes. Most of these models simulate crop growth and soil processes using daily time steps. All models are developed with some assumptions and hypotheses, and all have strengths, weaknesses and limitations for appropriate application. Well-known crop modelling groups across the world include IBSNAT/IFDC (International Benchmark Sites Network for Agro technology Transfer/International Fertilizer Development Centre) in USA, WAU/AB-DLO (Wageningen Agriculture University/Centre for Agro-biological Research) in the Netherlands, and APSRU (Agriculture Production Systems Research Unit) in Australia. The IBSNAT project was initiated in 1982, and over the past 20 years it has developed more than 15 models, including CERES (Crop Estimation through Resource and Environment Synthesis) Rice and CERES Wheat, which are available either as stand-alone models or within the DSSAT (Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer) shell (Uehara and Tsuji, 1993).

16.1 Introduction

It is well known fact that planners as well as end user’s have to consider any resources as technology from economic point of view. Therefore, it is important to have techno – economic analysis of each energy source option. In the feasibility study of particular energy option, three tier judgement approaches is required, which include technical feasibility, economical viability and social acceptability. Hence in the rural energy planning programme one has to considered techno socio economic analysis of an individual energy option. Since in integrated rural energy planning, locally available energy resources are used, presuming that it is socially recognized. Hence in the IRPE project, the need and scope of techno economic analysis in terms of economic analysis of different technical feasible options, before between “economic” and “financial” analysis should be kept in mind. An economic analysis is needed to verify that a particular energy source will provide “net benefit” to society as a whole, before its final integration in the energy context, while a financial analysis integrated in the energy practices. In simple wards, a financial analysis is concerned with goods and services, money inflow and outflows and the transfer of payments. An economic analysis also considers the social benefits and costs of goods and services which are not traded in a market.

18.1. Determination of Available Micronutrient Cations (Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn) in Soil

The available micronutrient cations (Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn) can be estimated in a single extraction with diethylene triamine pentaacetic acid (DTPA) as proposed by Lindsay and Norvell (1978). DTPA has the excellent property to combine with free metal ions in the solution forming soluble complexes. The stability constants of metal-DTPA complexes make DTPA as a most suitable extractant for simultaneous complex formation with Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn. In calcareous soil DTPA extractant may result overestimation due to excess dissolution of CaCO_3, thus releases occluded micronutrient cations which are not plant available. To avoid this excessive dissolution of CaCO₃, DTPA is buffered at pH 7.3 using triethanol amine (TEA). At this pH major part (3/4^th) of TEA is present as HTEA⁺ (protonation) and exchanges for Ca and Mg ion from the soil exchange site. This increases concentration of Ca and Mg in the solution phase and suppresses dissolution of CaCO₃. The DTPA has the capacity to complex each of the micronutrient cations 10 times of its atomic weight and it ranges from 550 to 650 ppm depending on the micronutrient cation.

The amount of cation in the extract is determined on an atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS). The experimental condition such as shaking time, DTPA concentration, pH and temperature during shaking influence the amount of Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn extracted. Increase in shaking time and temperature markedly influence the extractability of these cations.

Vector data consists of points, lines and polygons with x, y coordinates known as vertices representing the geographic location i.e. latitude and longitude. Vector data depicts the shape of the spatial feature. Points consist of single x, y locations. Examples of points are tower location, sampling location, etc. Lines represent 1 – dimensional features like roads, streams, etc., and are composed of many or at least two connected points or vertices. Polygons denote 2 – dimensional features like boundaries with three or more vertices that are connected and closed. The vector data are represented in the following figure (fig. 5.1).

A treatment is the combination of N & P

If levels of N & P are 5 & 10 respectively, so number of treatments are 5x10=50.

Introduction

It is known and well documented that ‘biological diversity’ (i.e. diversity within species, between species and within ecosystems) has been declining at a much faster rate than earlier time in human history. The current rate of extinction is tens to hundred times higher than the average over the past 10 million years and it is accelerating (IPBES, 2019). The estimates of the number of species getting extinct every year vary from low (200 to 2,000) to high (10,000 and 100,000) (Bar-On et al., 2018). The delicate balance of clean air, water and biodiversity in nature which helps in survival on earth, is rapidly being destroyed due to humans’ activity like growing of food, producing energy, dispose of waste and consume resources (IPBES, 2019). The current human population of the world (7.6 billion) represents only 0.01% of all living creatures and attributed to be instrumental in causing loss of 83% of all wild mammals and half of plants (IPBES, 2019). These unprecedented changes in important components of biodiversity are likely to continue or increase in the foreseeable future, unless we take active corrective measures (IPBES, 2019).

Whilst all biodiversity has intrinsic economic or social value, it is the ‘agricultural biodiversity’ (‘agrobiodiversity’ in short) that has the greatest importance for food nutrition and health security of humans. The FAO has recently defined biodiversity for food and agriculture (BFA) as a subset of biodiversity that contributes primarily to agriculture and food production (FAO, 2019). It includes the domesticated plants and animals raised in crop, livestock, forest and aquaculture systems, harvested forest and aquatic species, the wild relatives of domesticated species, other wild species harvested for food and other products. It also encompasses “associated biodiversity”

Introduction

Several hazardous chemicals, microbes, and techniques like recombinant DNA technology are used for research and development work in research Institutes and universities. Therefore, the researchers, technical, helping and supporting staffs as well as the laboratory outputs must be kept free from contaminations. Thus, biosafety is necessary to prevent unintentional exposure/ release of hazardous chemicals, microbes/pathogens, and toxins to the laboratory staff and environment. Following the biosafety guidelines and ethical considerations are essential to maintain safety standards for the researchers as well as the environment. This chapter deals with various biosafety measures and ethical issues to be strictly followed while working in a research laboratory. The required safety level needs to be determined as per the chemical/biological materials are used in the laboratory to keep the researcher/environment safe for sustainable research and developmental activities.

Biosafety

The term biosafety is used to describe the procedure and policies needed to ensure environmental and personal safety. Biosafety refers to the containment principles, technologies and practices that are implemented to prevent unintentional exposure to pathogens, toxins, or their accidental release into the environment. A fundamental objective of any biosafety program is the containment of potentially harmful chemical/biological agents as precautionary safety measures.

Why Biosafety?

With the increasing number of countries adopting molecular biology tools and techniques in life science research and development activities, especially in the areas of agriculture and medicine, the biosafety issues are gaining importance to ensure biological safety for the public and the environment. Conducting research in safe and sustainable manner is not only a personal requirement but essential collective efforts to ensure biological safety for a clean and safe environment. This requires rules, regulations, monitoring bodies, and awareness among the workers as well as the public. Therefore, biosafety per se is an integral part of laboratory research and requires awareness among the researchers so that biological safety can be well taken care from the grassroot level.

14.1 Ethics in Scientific Research and Innovation
Introduction
Scientific research and innovation in biotechnology, particularly in the realms of genetic engineering, genomics, and transgenic organisms, bring immense promise for advancing agriculture, health, and environmental sustainability. However, this progress must be balanced with strong ethical foundations, as the misuse or careless application of biotechnological innovations can lead to irreversible harm to humans, society, and the biosphere. The term bioethics encapsulates the principles of morality, justice, and responsibility that should govern all scientific inquiry and technological development.
Ethics in scientific research and innovation is not merely an adjunct to regulatory compliance—it is a core component of scientific integrity and social responsibility. It ensures that biotechnological advances are developed in ways that respect human dignity, safeguard biodiversity, and reflect societal values.
1. Fundamental Ethical Principles in Scientific Research
Ethical decision-making in science is guided by several foundational principles, adapted from biomedical and research ethics. These include:

Introduction

Date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L., Family: Palmaceae) also known as Khajoor, Kharek is an ancient important fruit tree of semi-arid and arid regions of the world. It grows well under poor desertic soils due to its hardy plant characteristics and deep root system. It is also one of the most suitable fruit trees to grow under saline irrigation conditions. It is well known fact that date palm has its feet in the water and its head in sun. It requires dry hot climate for growth, development and maturity of fruits. In arid region, crop production is a risky preposition where date palm cultivation contributes in achieving food security, high nutritive value food, crop diversification, desertification control, income generation and foreign exchange earnings. It can be grown at such places where adequate irrigation facility is available besides dry hot climatic conditions (Chandra et al., 1992; Singh and Dhandar, 2007).

13.1    Biochemical Changes During Banana Ripening
    
13.2    Commercial Ripening

Hydroponics is a subset of hydroculture and is a method of growing plants using mineralnutrient solutions, in water, without soil. Terrestrial plants may be grown withtheir roots in the mineralnutrient solution only or in an inert medium, suchas perlite, gravel,mineral wool, expanded claypebbles or coconut husk

The techniques on hydroponics are widely used in plant sciences to elucidate several problemson nutrition. Primarily, this has been not only used to evaluate deficiency symptoms of an essential element but also used to assess waters stress effects in crop plants. There has been a considerable controversy whether such responses paralled with field responses. Though these techniques have their limitations, it is certain that it has its relevance in identifying certain genotypes relatively tolerant to some stresses such as water, O₂ and nutrition. Without entering to such debatable issue, it can be said thatwherenecessity demands, such techniques would proveuseful in demonstration purposes and evaluation of macronutrient deficiencies in tomato and maize. Thegrowing of plants in nutrient solution is called as water culture or hydroponics. These experiments in nutrient solutions are carried out to study the mineral nutrient relation of plants. By elements required for plant growth, specific deficiency symptoms can be produced in water culture experiments. Thesuccess of these experiments of producing deficiency symptoms depends upon the use of homogenous biological material and purity of culture solution in respect of different plant nutrients. Hydroponics is a subset of soilless culture. Many types of soilless culture do not use the mineral nutrient solutions required for hydroponics.

Plants that are not traditionally grown in a climate would be possible to grow usinga controlled environment systemlike hydroponics. NASA has also looked to utilize hydroponics in the space program. Ray Wheeler, plant physiologist at Kennedy Space Center’s Space Life Science Lab, believes thathydroponics will create advances within space travel. He terms this as a bioregenerative life support system.