eChapters

Term rendering is generally used to recover the fat from animal material by heating. However, today rendering word is applied in broad sense in by-products industry to recover stock feed, fertilizers and fats from slaughter house offals, parts and condemned material from animal body. Today many products are recovered by rendering process and can be utilized in different ways. Some of them may be categorized as edible and inedible. The major examples are lard and tallow which may be edible and inedible depending on the processing. Other valuable products include chemicals, meat meals and bone meals. To get these valuable products, various animal by-products are processed like viscera, bones, trimmings, dead stock, feather and other poultry materials.

ABSTRACT

There has been conscious effort to discover and apply biological pesticides for the control of insect predation. Insecticidal proteins/ genes from Bacillus thuringiensis have been deployed as sprays and through transgenic route for crop protection against insect attack and have been successful in protecting the crop damage and environment pollution. However, impending fear of development of resistance to Bt proteins by insects has prompted search for new insecticidal proteins. In this context we are exploring and analysing components of insect immunity as targets for restricting insect feeding behaviour. Insects encounter several microbes during different stages of growth and development. Incidental entry of these microbes elicits a host defense response, which mainly consists of a phenoloxidase (PO) pathway. The invasion of the microbe is recognized by a specific protein, which activates the PO pathway consisting of prophenoloxidase (PPO) & prophenoloxidase activating enzyme (PPAE). Understanding the mechanism of insect immunity will allow us to discover potential targets for inactivating the mechanism of immune action in insects and make them vulnerable to natural microbial infection.

An agronomically important polyphagous pest, Heliothis armigera (Bollworm) was chosen in the present work for studying the components of insect immunity. H. armigera is the most important insect pest of the developing world accounting for heavy damage on various crops including cotton, vegetables, tobacco, potato, groundnut, chickpea and pigeon pea. We have isolated full-length cDNA encoding prophenoloxidase (PPO) and a partial cDNA encoding PPAE from haemocytes of 5th instar larvae of H. armigera. The open reading frame (ORF) of PPO gene is 2.1 kb, which encodes for a 698 amino acid protein with a molecular mass of 77 kDa. Computer-assisted analysis revealed the presence of 60 amino acid long propeptide at the N terminus of protein and 2 copper binding motifs but no signal peptide was detected. The gene was cloned and expressed in a bacterial expression vector pET43b under the induction of IPTG. The SDS-PAGE analysis showed that the protein is expressing in the supernatant in its native form. The expressed enzyme is catalytically active on 4-Methylcatechol upon activation by cetyl pyridinium chloride (CPC). The regulatory role played enzyme in insect immunity is being examined.

The popularity of greenhouse-grown produce continues to rise as it provides a variety of produce during the “off” season. Greenhouses are good for healthy plant nursery production and other a number of crops for profit. Though the greenhouse farming in India like in other countries is progressing but there are certain problems and constraints as stated below.

1.Greenhouse production generally is highly technical and requires constant and continuous attention during cropping period. Relevant information about the crop environmental requirement such as right temperature, humidity etc is essential.

2.Knowledge about the right type of inputs for greenhouse production is a must which is not easily available.

3.Greenhouses cultivation increases the land, water and fertilizer productivity along with reduction in pesticide use. But such interventions are associated with very high initial cost. Although, it is linked with several Government Schemes in India and have 50-90% of subsidies depending on intervention, status / socio-economic condition and policy of State and Central Government.

4.Uninterrupted and regular power supply is required for operating cooling and heating system of the controlled environment greenhouses which necessitate a back-up power pack which is also expensive and underutilized.

1. GERMINATION TEST PROCEDURES

Although several methods are available for germination testing it is suggested that use one of the two major methods described here because these are adaptable to most environments and in general give uniform results Select 400 seeds randomly and used for germination in 4 replications.

1.1. Top of Paper (TP)

Seeds are placed on one or more layers of moist filter paper or blotter paper in petriplates These petriplates are covered with lid and placed inside the gemination cabinet This is suitable for those seeds which required light Cut the paper to the size and shape of the dishes (Fig. 1).

Place a layer of paper in each dish If the paper is too thin use a double layer Label the top and bottom of each dish with the accession number number of the replicates and date of the test Moisten the paper with water (Fig. 2)

Use of modern reproductive biotechnologies or assisted reproductive techniques (ART) include in general artificial insemination, embryo transfer/sexing, in vitro fertilization, gamete/embryo micromanipulation, semen sexing, genome resource banking, and somatic cell nuclear transfer (cloning) in conservation programs for endangered mammalian species. The biotechnologies of these kinds generally permit more and more offspring to be obtained from selected parents to ensure genetic diversity and may reduce the interval between generations.

Expectation from Work and Career

Millennials do not distinguish work from life; for them, both work and life blend into a single entity, and therefore, they do not seek a balance between them unlike previous generations (Meister and Willyerd, 2010). This is precisely why they seek work that has a strong focus on personal fulfilment. Their perception of work is that it is a source of opportunities to strike friendships, learn new skills, and associate with a larger purpose. They derive job satisfaction from this singular sense of purpose - they are also the most socially conscious generation since the 1960s. This social consciousness lends them a sense of validation of their purpose - they wish to see their work making the necessary social impact.

Teaching

Extension teaching denotes a structured process aimed at fostering the learning experience. This process encompasses the facilitation of activities, provision of materials, and offering guidance necessary for the learner. In essence, it orchestrates scenarios wherein the subjects to be assimilated are brought to the learners’ attention, fostering their interest, engendering desire, instilling conviction, prompting action, and ensuring satisfaction.

Characteristics of Teaching

1. The quintessential objective of teaching transcends mere dissemination of information; rather, it endeavors to effect transformative changes in behavior.

2. Teaching is deemed efficacious only when learning is effectively acquired by the learner.

3. Teaching, analogously, is akin to illuminating a lamp rather than merely f illing a receptacle.

4. Teaching is a deliberate, purposeful endeavor, not a haphazard undertaking.

5. Effective teaching is methodically executed according to predetermined designs rather than being subject to inadvertent deviations.

6. Proficient teaching necessitates meticulous planning encompassing content, procedures, methods, and techniques.

7. Superlative teaching fundamentally hinges upon adept communication, which, in turn, demands empathetic sharing and lucid exposition.

1. Gummosis.
Diagnosic Symptoms
• First symptoms are dark staining of bark which progresses into the wood.
• Bark at the base is destroyed resulting in girdling and finally death of the tree.
• Bark in such parts dries, shrinks and cracks and shreds in lengthwise vertical strips.
• Later profuse exudation of gum from the bark of the trunk (characteristic symptom).
• The infection spreads both upward to the leaves and even fruits and downward to the roots causing fibrous root rot.
• The fibrous root rot destroys a major portion of the root system.
• However, the trunck and root infections may usually result in ultimate drying of the tree (Fig-1).
Etiology
Scientific Classification
Kingdom : Fungi
Division : Eumycota

Introduction
The word “calcareous” has been commonly used as the generic description of all materials containing calcium carbonates greater than 10%. In the context of agricultural problem soils, calcareous soils are soils in which a high amount of calcium carbonate dominates the problems related to agricultural land use. They are characterized by the presence of calcium carbonate in the parent material and by a calcic horizon, a layer of secondary accumulation of carbonates (usually Ca or Mg) in excess of 15% calcium carbonate equivalent and at least 5% more carbonate than an underlying layer. Calcareous soils are common in the arid areas of the earth (FAO, 2016) occupying >30% of the earth’s surface. In the world Reference Base (WRB) soil classification system calcareous soils may mainly occur in the Reference soil group of calcisols.
Formation / genesis of calcareous soils
The soil are formed largely by the weathering of calcareous rocks and fossil shell beds like varieties of chalk, marl , lime stone and frequently a large amount of phosphates. Soils also can become calcareous through long term irrigation with water contains small amounts of dissolved CaCO3 that can accumulate with time.
The secondary CaCO3 are formed under arid and semi-arid climatic conditions, when the carbonate concentration in the soil solution remains High Accumulation starts in the fine and medium sized pores at the surface of contact between the soil particles. This accumulation may be rather concentrated in a narrow zone of the solum or more dispersed depending upon the quantity and frequency of rainfall, topography, soil texture and vegetation. In high rainfall area i.e. in highly weathered soils, CaCO3 is dispersed from the surface horizons. While in arid and semi-arid regions due to low rainfall and limited leaching carbonates may be present in relatively high amounts. In medium deep and deep black clay soils carbonates are generally accumulated in subsurface horizons. However in some eroded shallow black soils they may be exposed right at the surface of soils. In some soils CaCO3 deposits are concentrated into layers that may be very hard and impermeable to water also

Intellectual Property Right, IPR is a general term covering patents, registered design, trademarks, copyrights, layout design of integrated circuits, trade secrets, geographical indicators and competitive practices in contractual license.

Blood is a first by-product of animal slaughter house. It accounts about 5-7 percent of animals live weight. It is highly nutritious material particularly rich in protein (17-18%) and essential nutrients. Blood is a rich source of amino acids like leucine, lysine, valine, phenylalanine, histidine etc. It is also rich in haem iron which is biologically most available form of iron. Protein efficiency ratio of plasma is 2.5 while 1.0 for globin. It contains about 80 percent water and responsible for effluent problems. It is a great source of pollution because BOD₅ of whole blood is 250000 mg/litre. It should be collected and processed as soon as possible because whole blood clots easily and is capable to clogs the drainage system, grease traps and septic tank of meat plant or abattoir.

Crop Protection Measures
DSIR/TPDU/TIF 056 and E-28-GO-GOI Research Scheme on “Documentation and Preservation of Agricultural Traditional Knowledge through Farmer Participatory Approach”

Abstract

In India, the allium groups (onion and garlic) are important bulb crops for home consumption as well as sources of income to many peasant farmers in many parts of the country. The garlic bulbs are valued for their flavor and have wide applications in food and their antimicrobial, antifungal, insecticidal and antioxidative properties. The engineering properties of garlic bulb, clove and skin plays important role in the planning of various post-harvest operations like drying, sorting, grading, bulb breaking, peeling and designing the process equipments like bulb breaker, clove separator and peeler. The aim of this chapter was to study the engineering properties viz., physical, mechanical, aerodynamic and frictional properties of garlic bulbs, and cloves in both peeled and unpeeled form.

Introduction

India is rightly the spice bowl of the world. India has the largest domestic market for spices in the world. Indian spices are the most sought-after globally, given their exquisite aroma, texture and taste. Garlic (Allium sativum L.) is a world’s favourite, versatile horticultural commodity consumed for culinary, medicinal and antimicrobial purposes and is being cultivated for over 5000 years. The most important part of the garlic plant is the compound bulb. Each bulb is made of 6-26 cloves and is wrapped in a white papery sheath. Some varieties have a radish or purplish sheath. The bulbs are valued for their flavour, command extensive commercial importance because of their wide application in food and pharmaceutical preparations. Garlic is still probably nature’s most powerful medicinal plant to us today. It is recognized to have remarkable preventive and curative abilities. Garlic is mainly used aromatic spices and pickles as it has digestive, carminative and anti-rheumatic properties. It is being used in ayurvedic formulation since a long for curing lungs, healing the intestinal ulcer and checking muscular pain and giddiness.

Abstract

Mushroom production is emerging as an added dimension in agriculture diversity; its cultivation lies on the utilization of agricultural wastes rich in proteinaceous materials. Five different substrates such as wheat straw, maize cob, paddy straw, banana pseudo stem, and lentil straw were used with suitable supplements to evaluate the average period of spawn run, pin head initiation, time taken for harvesting of flushes, fruit yield during both crop season 2014 and 2015. In 2014, highest fruit yield (380.3 g/ 500g) were recorded when wheat straw supplemented with rice bran (2% of the substrate weight), corn flour @ 25 g/kg prepared straw and gypsum @ 20 g/kg straw among various used substrates. This treatment also resulted better in respect of time taken for spawn run (9.3 days), pin head initiation (11.7 days), time taken for harvesting of flushes (I^st flush- 20.5, II^nd flush-26.7, III^rd flush- 32.9). The second best treatment was paddy straw when supplemented with rice bran (2% of the substrate weight), corn flour @ 25 g/kg prepared straw, and gypsum @ 20 g/kg. The lowest fruit yield (193.6 g/500g), time taken for spawn run (15.9 days), pin head initiation (22.4 days), time taken for harvesting of flushes (I^st flush- 27.9, II^nd flush-37.1, III^rd flush- 44.7) were recorded with banana pseudostem (chopped) when supplemented with rice bran (2 % of the substrate weight), corn flour @ 25 g/kg prepared straw and CaCO₃ gypsum @ 20 g/kg straw. The same experiment was repeated during the year crop season 2015. Surprisingly wheat straw supplemented with rice bran (2% of the substrate weight), corn flour @ 25 g/kg prepared straw and gypsum @ 20 g/kg prepared straw was found again superior over other treatments with more or less similar performance. Similarly more or less same performances were resulted in rest of the treatment too. The incidence of mould infection in mushroom was also noticed in accordance with the kinds of substrates used during both crop season 2014 and 2015. Lowest incidence of mould i.e. green mould (5.13 %), black mould (3.10 %) and blue mould (2.42%) was observed on wheat straw when supplemented with rice bran (2% of the substrate weight), corn flour @ 25 g/kg prepared straw and gypsum @ 20 g/kg straw, green mold (3.13 %), black mold (3.10 %) and blue mold (2.42 %). Similarly more or less same pattern of mould incidence was reported in the crop season 2015.

The climate, the past weather event that existed over larger region and covering long years of more than 30 years is very important for the emergence and successful sustenance of an organism including human kind. Normally scientists talk about environment and this includes not only the soils but also the climate of the particular region. Based on this, during 1989, the Planning Commission of India divided the entire India in to 15 agro-climatic zones based on physiography and climate. This division is only for planning purposes. Subsequently under NARP, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), New Delhi in consultation with the Planning Commission, requested all State Agricultural Universities (SAU) to divide their State in to different sub climatic zones considering soils, temperature and other weather parameters preciously with in the major agroclimatic zone of India in which the concerned State falls. Accordingly, each SAU has divided their State into different agro-climatic sub-zones and this resulted in 129 agro-climatic sub zones in India and limited to 127 and these all fall within 15 agro climatic zones of India as done by the Planning Commission of India.

The National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning (NBSS&LUP), Nagpur not satisfied with this division, considering soils, temperature, rainfall, vegetation and all factors responsible for ecosystem (bio-climate, length of growing period, moisture index) divided the whole India in to 20 agro-eco regions by 1992 and revised preciously again by 2015 (Mandal et al., 2016) and the revised approach is being considered as scientific tool and taken for micro-level planning in India now and those are discussed at this chapter.

The economics of distribution “accounts for the sharing of the wealth produced by a community among the agents of the owners of the agents which have been active in its production”.

- Chapman

The division of the national dividend or aggregate national income among the different agents of production viz., rent for land, wage for labour, interest for capital and proft for entrepreneur is termed as distribution in economics.

Factor Market

A factor market is a market where factors of production are bought and sold. Factor markets allocate factors of production, including land, labour and capital, and distribute income to the owners of productive resources, such as wages, rents, etc.

In the factor market it is not acres of land which is being bought or sold but the services of land. Similarly neither the labour nor capital goods are being bought and sold but the services of labour and capital. Thus rent is not the price of land but

Reproduction by asexual means is common among higher plants. The best known means of asexual reproduction are by corms, bulbs, rhizomes, stolons, or other vegetative organs. Plants normally propagated in agricultural practice by these means or by budding or grafting include nearly all fruit and nut trees, strawberries, blackberries and raspberries, grapes, pineapples, almost all ornamental shrubs and trees and a few field crops such as sugar cane, potatoes, and sweet potatoes. Asexually or clonally propagated plants produce genetically identical progeny. Clones are identical copies of a genotype. Together, they are phenotypically homogeneous. However, individually, they are highly heterozygous and segregate widely upon sexual reproduction. This is not unexpected, because the types selected as commercial cultivars are likely to be vigorous ones, and a positive correlation exists between vigour and heterozygosity in most species.

1.1. Background

Once this beautiful planet conceived human civilization with the glory of motherhood, the birds kept on twittering in an ecstasy of joy and freedom; the ripples of pristine rivers, blue and giggling, offered shelter to silvery fishes and pink Amazon Lilies! But human greed has defeated its own needs. So, what had been a means to survive now has turned into tools to triumph, rather, a weapon to destroy her own creation. By this time, we have transformed fertile lands into a barren Arizona, deep forests into a nasty slums and blue rivers into a filthy stream, called Yamuna.

The advent of the Anthropocene, implies that an unprecedented era of human impact on the natural environment, is now so large that the Earth has entered a new geological epoch; it is leaving the Holocene, the environment within which human societies themselves have developed (Gornish and dos Santos, 2016; Reynolds, 2021). Climate change is a prominent sign of human- driven changes to the global environment. There is every reason to be alarmed about anthropogenic climate change, pollution, and biodiversity loss, all of which have been accelerating in recent decades and do pose “existential crisis” (Díaz et al., 2020; Abhilash et al., 2021). Sixth Assessment Report of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) released on February 28, 2022, paints a troubling picture as limiting global warming to 1.5oC (a global target in the Paris Climate Agreement) is not safe for all. If warming exceeds 1.5oC, even temporarily, much more severe, often irreversible effects of climate change will occur, land and ocean temperature change, sea level rise and ocean acidification, loss of Arctic Sea ice and ice sheets, stronger storms, longer heatwaves and droughts, abrupt precipitation mainly intensity and seasonal distribution, thawing permafrost and more (IPCC, 2013). On the basis of the Sixth Assessment UN Secretary-General António Guterres said “The alarm bells are deafening, and the evidence is irrefutable: greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuel burning and deforestation are choking our planet and putting billions of people at immediate risk.” According to the United Nations (2015), there are still 836 million people in the world living in extreme poverty (less than USD,1.25/ day). And according to the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), at least 70% of the very poor live in rural areas, most of them depending partly or completely on agriculture for their livelihoods. It is estimated that 500 million smallholder farms in the developing world are supporting almost 2 billion people, and in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa these small farms produce about 80 percent of the food consumed (IFAD, 2011). The rural poor often depend partly on forests for their livelihoods (World Bank, 2002). It is estimated that between 660 and 820 million people (workers and their families) depend totally or partly on fisheries, aquaculture and related industries as a source of income and support (HLPE, 2014).

Application of computers in Hospital Pharmacy Practice
Computers have significantly transformed hospital pharmacy practices, enhancing various aspects of patient care, medication safety, and operational efficiency. Below are the key applications of computers in this field
1. Electronic Health Records (EHRs): EHRs are comprehensive digital records that replace traditional paper charts, encompassing a patient’s entire medical history. These records include data on diagnoses, lab results, medications, immunization records, treatment plans, and demographic information. EHRs offer real-time, patient-centered records accessible to authorized healthcare providers, enabling seamless sharing of information across different departments and facilities. This enhances collaboration, leading to more accurate diagnoses, coordinated care, and effective treatment plans. Additionally, EHRs support clinical decision-making through integrated alerts and reminders, ensuring critical data is communicated promptly for better patient outcomes.
2. Clinical Decision Support Systems (CDSS): Clinical Decision Support Systems (CDSS) are advanced tools integrated within healthcare IT systems to aid healthcare professionals in decision-making processes. CDSSs analyze patient-specific data and match it with extensive medical knowledge bases to provide tailored recommendations for diagnosis and treatment options. By flagging potential issues such as drug interactions, allergies, and contraindications, these systems reduce the risk of errors and enhance patient safety. CDSS can also offer reminders for preventive measures, suggest evidence-based protocols, and guide adherence to clinical guidelines, thus streamlining the clinical workflow and improving quality of care.

Abstract

In South India, tanks system is quiet ancient, meant for storing and supplying water towards multifunctional needs of the people. In Tamil Nadu, there are around 39,000 tanks with varying size and types. Over past few decades, irrigation rely on stable and reliable groundwater resources like dug and deep bore wells, consequently tanks lost their significance. Moreover, excessive siltation, improper maintenance and illegal encroachment further degraded the system. The deterioration factors are broadly categorised into problems in catchment, feeder channels and head works which eventually resulted in loss of storage capacity. The present study chiefly narrates an indirect method of estimating the loss in storage capacity of tanks and the catchment problem, especially soil erosion and its induced siltation of tanks in the downstream using geoinformatics technology. Using remotely sensed satellite data, by measuring surface area of tank loss in storage capacity was estimated through a linear model. Using Digital Elevation Model derived topographic wetness indices data, the catchment problem especially, soil erosion areas were identified and remedial measures were suggested. Under prevailing water crisis, it is essential to rehabilitate the tanks through which the surface water potential can be improved along with quality as well.