eChapters

ABSTRACT

Coastal resources represents highly productive ecosystems and are under pressure on account of increased anthropogenic activity on the coast. There is an urgent need to protect coastal resources aiming at sustainable development. Management of coastal resources requires spatial information on land and water resources, processes, water quality in a repetitive basis. Availability of high resolution and very high resolution data made the spatial tools indispensable in planning and management of resources such as mangroves and coral reefs. Monitoring mangrove degradation and aquaculture development, land use pattern, site selection for developmental activities adhering to coastal regulation zone notification requires highly accurate spatial information that can be extracted from IRS, IKONOS data. Extensive applications of remote sensing were hindered by cost, lack of familiarity and expertise in the developing countries. A national frame work must be established involving all available spatial datasets to build up the technical capabilities and ensure sustained support.

10.1. Downy mildew of Plantago psyllium

Downy mildew is the major and serious disease of Plantago particularly P. ovata. It causes enormous quantitative and qualitative loss and often becomes a limiting factor in the successful cultivation of the crop (Desai and Desai, 1969). Usually the disease appears at the time of spike initiation.

Pathogen: Peronospora alta and P. plantaginis

Geographical distribution
Plantago ovata under commercial cultivation has been reported to suffer from downy mildew disease. Downy mildew occurs on ripe seeds of Spanish, French and European plantago. The downy mildew is a native of Mediterranean region especially Southern Europe, North Africa and West Pakistan.
The plantago commercially cultivated in Gujarat and to a limited extent in Haryana and Rajasthan provinces in India is observed to be infected with downy mildew.

Birds are extremely vulnerable to handling (even injection related events) stress and hence, chemically immobilize for a detailed clinical examination or intensive sampling procedures).

The systematic identification, evaluation, and integration of the body of published work produced by researchers, scholars, and practitioners is achieved through a rigorous and repeatable method called the review of the literature. It acts as a comprehensive resource, incorporating the most recent information, important discoveries, and theoretical breakthroughs linked to a certain field. The literature review is a useful compilation of important discoveries as well as methodological and theoretical contributions within a certain topic that is frequently seen in academic and scholarly journals.

In all academic areas, the review of literature is a crucial component of research. Its main goal is to assess, evaluate, and make links between our findings and previous research on a particular subject of interest. In addition, the literature review acts as a point of reference and offers helpful insights in the following ways:

i. Approaches

ii. Methods

iii. Variables

ABSTRACT

This work presents the results of multispectral analysis of TM (Thematic Mapper) sensor images on board the satellite LANDSAT 5 for discrimination of selected features of a Nainarmalai region of part of Namakkal District, Tamil Nadu using hyperspectral tools. The spectral classification was carried out using hyperspectral tools namely, a) spectral reduction by the Minimum Noise Fraction (MNF) transformation, b) spatial reduction by the Pixel Purity Index (PPI) and c) manual identification of the end members using the N-dimensional visualizer. The results of study shows that the kinds of features such as magnetite quartzite, sand, harvested land and vegetation area are discriminated well (as given in the figure) and show a strong correlation with landscape.

Keywords: Landsat TM Multispectral Images, MNF transformation, PPI, endmembers, Reflectance spectrum, ENVI software.

1. INTRODUCTION

With a multispectral analysis of an images collected by radiometers and detectors embarked on a satellite, one can make: “spectroscopy by satellite imagery”. Imaging spectrometers or “multispectral sensors” are remote sensing instruments that combine the spatial presentation of an imaging sensor with the analytical capabilities of a spectrometer. With a radiometer such as AVIRIS ”Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer” where the number of spectral bands exceeds the 200, and with a spectral resolution of the order of 10 nm or narrow, it can produce a complete spectrum for each pixel of the image. The case of this radiometer enters on the “Hyperspectral” field. In the case of our study, we are using the radiometer TM (Thematic Mapper), which is on board for the satellite Landsat 5, and which only has 7 multispectral bands, with a spectral resolution of the order of 100 nm. Like finale result, one using the spectroscopy by satellite imagery, we can identify the spectra of various materials which are on various terrestrial surfaces.

Introduction

Decision making is the most important aspect of any business and industry. Farming is a business and agriculture is also an industry. Hence, decision making plays an important role with regard to the problems concerning production of commodities. The main questions before the producer or the production manager are: (i) What to produce, (ii) How to produce, and (iii) How much to produce.

Linear programming (LP) is a modeling tool that can assist in the solution of many problems in agriculture. It is useful in selecting the best alternative from a number of available course of actions.

LP models are designed to “optimize” a specific objective criterion subject to a set of constraints. The quality of the resulting solution depends on the completeness of the model in representing the real system.

1. DEFINITION

Sum of those properties of seed, which determine the potential level of activity and performance of the seed or seed lot during germination and seedling emergence. i.e., rapid and uniform production of healthy seedling and stand establishment under a wide range of field conditions is considered as seed vigour.

In a vigour test, the seed is introduced to a stressful environment unfavorable to seedling development. This environment can be cool, cold or warm, or a combination of either high humidity and high temperatures, or heavy moisture at low temperatures. A vigor test cannot replace a germination test, but rather supplements it with more information about seed quality.

Supply Chain is defined as the movement of materials as they flow from their source to the end customer. SCM is a continuously evolving management philosophy that seeks to unify the collective productive competencies and resources of the business functions found both within the enterprise and outside in the firm’s allied business partners located along intersecting supply channels into a highly competitive, customer-enriching supply system focused on developing innovative solutions and synchronizing the flow of marketplace products, services, and information to create unique, individualized sources of customer value.

Introduction

Rainfall is one of the climatic variables that varies very highly spatially and temporally. Understanding this micro-level variation is a crucial indicator for planning future water requirements and preparing for management strategies. Numerous researchers have delved into the distribution, variability, and trends of rainfall across diverse spatial scales, ranging from global to regional and basin levels. Nair et al. (2014) analyzed the rainfall trend and seasonality index for Kerala state in India over the last 100 years. The rainfall trend was found to be decreasing significantly in almost all the regions of the state. Nischitha et al. (2013) provide insights into the spatial and temporal variability of daily monsoon rainfall in the Tunga and Bhadra River basins in Karnataka state. Paradkar et al. (2019) evaluated the pattern of weekly rainfall by using statistical parameters such as mean, standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis for five stations in Pratapgarh district.

Geographical Information System (GIS) proved to be an effective tool in handling information and analyzing rainfall patterns, providing visual representations, and facilitating the decision-making process (Kadir et al. (2016) and Rao et al. (2017)). Anand et al. (2020) analyzed the long-term spatial and temporal trends of rainfall in the Lower Bhavani basin in Tamil Nadu, India using GIS and statistical methods. Earls et al. (2007) compared different interpolation methods such as Inverse Distance Weighting, Spline, and Kriging (ordinary and universal) to generate a 30 m representation of the rainfall data. Spatial interpolation techniques perform differently and their evaluation should not rely solely on quantitative assessment. Wu & Hung (2016) compared the performance of three spatial interpolation techniques i.e., IDW, kriging, and spline using quantitative assessment, 2D visualization, and 3D visualization. IDW and kriging performed similarly in terms of quantitative assessment, while spline performed worse. IDW and spline performed similarly in 2D visualization, while kriging showed different behavior. Kriging was observed to be an inexact interpolation in 3D visualization, while spline tended to create extreme values along the edges of the study area. Some studies discovered that the accuracy of Kriging in the study area is higher than that of IDW or Thiessen interpolations (Earls et al. 2007; Song et al. 2008; Chen et al. 2010). GIS applications have the capability to integrate spatial data and non-spatial data like rainfall and to visualize, model, and analyze how rainfall distribution varies across space and over time, providing insights into climate change, water resource management, agricultural planning, and disaster management. The present study aims to analyze annual rainfall data pertaining to Kerala state in the GIS environment.

Bengal. Introduction
Homeostasis is unlike any time control process because it involves a very complicated relationship between fundamental knowledge of balance and coordination that ensures existence and performance of all creatures. It is in fact one of the major functioning mechanisms of biological systems, which allows them to sustain stable internal surroundings regardless of outside changes. This regulatory system is essential for evolutionary survival
as well as physiological balance. At the same time, time management-often viewed in terms of human productivity-plays an important part in biology by influencing biological clocks and circadian rhythms. In order to be healthy, behavior and species evolution, physiological processes have to synchronize their daily and seasonal changes caused by environment factors. At first glance, these two concepts seem to be unrelated; but if
viewed from the perspectives of biology and evolution, it becomes clear that they are deeply connected. These include temperature levels, pH values, and glucose concentrations among others that need to be maintained if life has to exist: homeostasis is necessary in order to keep these conditions stable. On the other hand, biological systems rely on time management especially through circadian rhythms so as to schedule diverse activities like feeding, sleeping metabolism or reproduction.This introduction describes how an organism manages to control and regulate its internal processes in conjunction with environmental stimuli is what makes it possible for organisms to live long, and perform productive activities and also enjoy a healthy life.In the year of 1926, Walter Cannon coined the word “homeostasis” with reference to a process through which all organisms maintain stable internal environments regardless changes happening outside their bodies. The theory’s cornerstone was Claude Bernard’s proposition of ‘milieu intérieur’, meaning moderate conditions needed for the existence of an organism itself the basic concept of homeostasis in physiology consists of the complex regulatory mechanisms regulating temperature, glucose metabolism, water balance, pH levels and other systems. Restoring equilibrium
is achieved through perturbations that trigger some reactions from a reference point and mostly these are negative feedback loops for homeostatic processes. For instance, when pancreatic cells secrete insulin into the bloodstream after a meal because there is an incr

ABSTRACT

Rapid optimization and improvement of papaya transformation necessacitates, a quick, non-destructive marker, which permits early detection of transformed tissue. We assessed the ability of a modified version of the green fluorescent protein gene (GFP) to act as the reporter. Transgenic papaya (Carica papaya L.) plants were developed using immature zygotic embryo as the expl ants and Agrobacterium tumefaciens as the transformation inducer. GFP gene (pBIN35Smgfp-ER) under the control of the Cauliflower Mosaic Virus (CaMV) 35S promoter was used as the reporter gene. Media P (modified MS basal medium with B vitamins supplemented with picloram 1 mg/l) and BN (modified MS basal medium with B vitamins supplemented with BAP: NAA 1:0.1 mg/l) supplemented with kanamycin (50 mg/l) were used for regeneration of transgenic papaya under selection pressure. GFP gene expression was detected at the juvenile stages viz. at early stages of somatic embryogenesis. 35S promoter driven GFP gene activity was also detected in the epidermis and the vascular tissues of the leaf petiole. Visualization under microscope and subsequent DNA analysis (Southern hybridization) showed that kanamycin resistant plants carried and expressed the GFP transgene. Expression of the GFP as green fluorescence served as a useful non-destructive indicator of successful transformation.

Abstract

Sunflower seeds of variety PSFH- 67 were obtained from the PAU seed farm. These seeds were cleaned with commonly used seed processing equipment. Samples were divided into 2 parts. One part was kept as such for taking the observations of feed (control) and the remaining part was passed through specific gravity separator for its refinement. The various fractions obtained were recovery (heavier, healthy seeds), middlings (intermediate, under size) and rejections (lightweight seeds, wevil eaten, foreign matter). The respective percentages of each fraction were computed. These graded fractions as well as the feed were packed in 2-kg cloth bags and stored under ambient conditions. Different quality parameters viz. moisture content, physical purity, percent germination, thousand grain weight and vigour index were recorded at 30 days interval from Jan, 2010 to Apr. 2010. The physical purity, moisture content, thousand grain weight, percent germination, root length, shoot length and vigour index were found to be higher in recovery and minimum for rejections while moisture content was highest for rejection compared to all other fractions. The physical purity remained more or less constant throughout the period of storage. The thousand-grain weight showed a rapid decrease during first month thereafter it remained constant. There was continuous decrease in percent germination with the period of storage irrespective of the treatment.

Introduction
Climate change has become an issue of global concern and has a direct large scale impact on land and marine biosphere. The expected and unlikely events like increase in temperature, melting of glaciers and rising of sea level, increase in magnitude  and frequency of drought and floods, cyclones/tsunamis, desertification, heat and cold waves, snow fall are most threatening challenges that are being witnesses in the present era. Rain fall is likely to decline by 5-10 % over southern parts of India where as 10-20% increase likely over the other regions. There is probable decrease in number of rainy days over major parts of the country pointing at likely increase of extreme events of floods or drought. In India, salt affected soils currently estimated to be 6.73 M ha in different agroecological regions and  the area is likely to be almost turn to 20Mha by 2050. Framing breeding strategies to develop climate resilient varieties is necessary to mitigate adverse effects of climate change.

A. Answer the following questions

1.    What isdigestibility?

Ans: The portion of a feed or any single nutrient of feed which is not recovered in faeces i.e the portion which has been absorbed by the animal is called digestibility.

2.    Whatis digestibilitycoefficient?

Ans: When the digestibility is expressed in % then it is called digestibilitycoefficient.

3.    Why digestibility of ash is not calculated?

Ans: Digestibilityfor ashisnot calculatedsince mostof the minerals are re-excreted in the gut and it does not contribute to the energy content of food.

4.    Why digestibility of carbohydrate is overestimated?

Ans: This is because there are losses of ingested carbohydrate as methane and carbon dioxide. But these losses are not counted.

5.    Why digestibility of crude protein is underestimated?

The dynamic layer surrounding the earth above its surface containing various gases, moisture, aerosols, etc. is called atmosphere. Atmosphere can be defined as the gaseous envelope surrounding the earth. It is retained by earth’s gravity.

The atmosphere protects life on earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, warming the surface through heat retention and reducing temperature extremes between day and night. The common name given to the atmospheric gases used in breathing and photosynthesis is air. The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 × 10¹⁸ kg, three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface. The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude, with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space. The imaginary ‘Karman line’ lies at an altitude of 100 km above the earth’s sea level, and commonly represents the boundary between the earth’s atmosphere and outer space. The study of earth’s atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science or ‘aerology’.

Livestock plays a subsidiary role in the farm as far as food production is concerned. Their role in absorbing the huge quantities of crop residues, coarse grains, cereals by-products and farm left-over and returning valuable manure to the soil to sustain their fertility for generation is significant. Livestock in general and dairying in particular is emerging as a driving force in the growth of agricultural sector in India. Dairying is the backbone of the marginal farmers and landless labourers spread over numerous villages scattered throughout the country. It is primary source of income and employment for many of India’s poor. This sector can play an important role in determining future prospects for the employment generation and poverty alleviation in the country.

After the Independence of India, the occupational avenues have undergone a tremendous change. With the spread of education and other amenities of life the traditional occupational structure has considerably changed. The Gujjars who had been a nomadic tribe are extensively becoming sedentary. The Gujjars are one of the important pastoral communities of India. Different social scientists and anthropologists have documented the origin and social aspects of the present Gujjars, who lived a pastoral life. Gujjars have their own Gujri language, which they generally speak among themselves. But they correspond with other people in Urdu generally. The main source of income for Gujjars is dairying. Consumers also prefer milk sold by them, as the quality of milk is good. The role of Gujjars to the rural and urban economy cannot be undermined.

Though information on sociological and anthropological aspects of the pastoral communities has been generated in various studies elsewhere but socio-economic studies are scanty. No concerted efforts have so far been made to study the socio economic of Gujjars, particularly with reference to various important economic parameters like resource structure, family composition, education status, economic status.

The present chapter is an attempt to study the socio economic aspects of one of the well known pastoral communities- the Gujjars of the Jammu district.

1.1 Agricultural technologies and knowledge

Agricultural technologies and knowledge have, until recently, largely been created and disseminated by public institutions. But over the past two decades, biotechnology for agricultural production has developed rapidly, and the world economy has become more globalised and liberalised

Introduction

India contributes about 5% to the world's eggs and 2.25% to chicken production (FAOSTAT, 2013). Indian Poultry Sector has been one of the fastest growing components of Indian economy with an annual compound growth rate of about 6% and 12% in egg broiler production, respectively. Poultry sector accounts for about 1% of the India's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and 11.7% of the livestock GDP (National Account Statistics, 2013). With a turnover of over ?600 billion, the sector provides employment to over six million people. The annual per capita availability has increased from 7 eggs in 1961 to 58 eggs in 2012; and poultry meat from 0.16 kg to 2.21 kg during the same period. However, the present availability levels are still far below the ICMR recommendations of 180 eggs and 11 kg meat per capita per annum. Ironically, consumption of poultry products has been highly skewed in favour of urban population. In fact, only 31% of the population residing in urban areas consumes 65% eggs and 70% of poultry meat and in a typical Indian village the egg consumption is not more than 10 eggs per capita per year. Despite higher prices of poultry products in rural areas, the penetrability and reach of poultry products have remained limited in rural India owing to fragmented markets and infrastructural bottlenecks. Sekhon and Tejinder (2007) have estimated that under a moderate growth scenario of 6% per annum in the Country's GDP the demand for meat and eggs is likely to shoot up to 9.7 and 15.32 MMT by 2021 and 2030, respectively. India would be easily able to meet this demand provided, the poultry egg and meat production continue to grow at the current levels.

The full form of ‘ISO’ is the International Organization for Standardization. ISO -QMS was founded in the year 1987. Its headquarters are in Geneva, Switzerland, operating in 162 plus countries.

• The ISO is an international standard-setting body that consists of the representatives from various national standards organizations.
• The ISO works on formulating the standards and guidelines for a variety of businesses and other purposes and publishes technical reports.
• The word ‘ISO’ is derived from the Latin term ‘isos’ which means ‘Equal for everyone’. It simply means that all the elements of the international std are equally applicable to all types of business.