eChapters

Introduction

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), fish and fishery products accounts for 17% of the global human consumption of animal protein. Per capita food fish supply has grown to 18.4kg per person, an 8% rise since 2006. Approximately 54% of the seafood protein supply for human consumption comes from wild catch; unfortunately about 30% of the world’s wild-capture fisheries are overexploited and many fisheries are in bad shape and getting worse. Solving this problem will require innovative monitoring and management tools, but we can provide tremendous benefits if we act now to reverse our course. Taking a serious, in-depth look at fisheries could help feed the world’s growing population, and conserve marine species. Humanity is reaching farther and deeper into the oceans and, until recently, there were only anecdotes and guesses about the complete effects of our actions. Recent reports show that some fisheries are being managed sustainably and good progress is being made in reducing exploitation rates and restoring overexploited fish stocks and marine ecosystems.

Sustainable fisheries management is an integrated process that seeks to attain an optimal state that balances ecological, economic, social and cultural objectives for fisheries. It involves information gathering, analysis, planning, consultation, decision-making, allocation of resources and formulation and implementation, with enforcement as necessary, which govern fisheries activities to ensure the above mentioned fisheries objectives. A thorough knowledge on the fish resource assessment is of utmost importance for a fishery manager to effectively make decisions and implement it. In this chapter, an attempt is made to briefly explain the basic concepts of fish resource under management, its assessment and techniques to be applied.

10.1 Introduction

The assumptions on which analysis of large samples is done generally do not hold well in case of small samples (n < 30). In case of large samples we had presumed that the random sampling distributions of statistics are approximately normal and further that the values obtained by sampling study are close to the population values and can be used in their place for the calculation of the standard error of the estimate. These assumptions do not hold well if the size of the samples may or may not be normally distributed and similarly it is not possible to substitute the mean or the standard deviation of a small sample in place of the parameter mean or standard deviation for the calculation of standard errors. Under such circumstances the analysis of small samples has to be done by techniques which are different from those applicable in case of large samples.

Introduction

More than 380 million urban population living in town and cities generates 62 million tones of municipal waste every year out of which 75% is recyclable but only 30% is recycled and reused whereas less than 15% of municipal solid waste is treated. Generally municipal authorities of the country dump the waste outside the city to keep the urban area clean. According to World Bank report, by the year 2025, waste generation will reach 377,000 tonnes per day in India (CPCB 2020). The waste generated in industrial and urban area of the country is tangible and concerning. This is the high time to address this issue with a great sensitivity and planning. Ragpickers works as the informal waste collection and recycling sector which plays an important role in waste management and leads to lesser waste to the landfills (Gupta et al., 1998).

Waste management is the process of treatment and disposal of solid, organic and hazardous waste. It can be categorized based on the source sector i) urban waste; ii) electrical waste iii) medical waste; iv) waste produced by disasters; v) agricultural waste vi) industrial waste etc. The type of waste has variable potential harms for human health, social implications, policies and the environment (FICCI, 2011). Agriculture itself is a big source of waste generated at different paths of food supply chain that occurs as follows:

The following plants have been worked out in the laboratory of Prof. N. Raaman: Cynodon dactylon, Artemisia pallens, Leptadenia reticulata, Clausena dentata, Tylophora indica, Aristolochia bracteolata, A. indica, Cissus quadrangularis, Hypericum mysorense. and Solanum trilobatum. Out of some of the data of these plants have been included in the previous chapters. In this chapter, compound isolation (CD1) from Clausena dentata (worked by Dr. R. Kamaraj) and characterization of the compound are given in detail.

Division of PHT & Agricultural Engineering, IIHR, Hessaraghatta Lake Post Bangalore – 560 089, Karnataka

Food processing is the transformation of agricultural products into food, or conversion of foods of one form into other forms. Food processing includes various operations viz. grinding grain to make raw flour to home cooking to complex industrial methods used to make convenience foods. The processes and procedures used to transform one or more raw ingredients into a consumable product are all included in food processing units. Animal husbandry, horticulture, plantations, agriculture, and fisheries include the use of food processing facilities. It also includes other sectors that produce finished food goods using agricultural inputs. 

Introduction

The emerging functional foods market presents a considerable challenge to all manufacturers to keep abreast of the use of adequate packaging materials for their products. The interest in functional foods is intrinsically linked to the potential health benefits of their bioactive components. Preserving these bioactive components is, therefore, a crucial factor to providing the anticipated health benefits of functional foods. However, recurring failure in maintaining the quality of functional foods has been reported. Functional foods include a wide variety of products such as prebiotics and probiotics, dried foods (fibers, tea, herbs, etc.), fermented products (yogurts, kefirs, vegetables), and fresh fruits and vegetables. Their bioactive components (minerals, vitamins, fibers, peptides, proteins, w–3 polyunsaturated fats, antioxidants, enzymes, and symbiotics) range from very simple molecules to complex living organisms such as bacteria.

This concluding chapter, “The Future ECG: Predicting a Vibrant Agricultural Heartbeat,” therefore adopts a global lens, acknowledging that the quest for accurate and timely monsoon forecasts is a shared endeavor with worldwide implications. Just as the electrocardiogram serves as a universal diagnostic tool for assessing the health of the human heart, the advancement of monsoon forecasting represents a collective effort to understand and predict the vital “ECG” of agriculture in all monsoon-dependent regions. Throughout this book, we have examined the scientific principles and evolving technologies underpinning monsoon prediction. In this final exploration, we will broaden our perspective to consider how the future of this field will impact agricultural practices and livelihoods on a global scale. The innovations in satellite technology, climate modeling, artificial intelligence, and data analytics that we’ve discussed in the context of the Indian monsoon hold immense potential for enhancing forecasting capabilities in every corner of the world where farmers rely on these seasonal rains. Imagine a future where international collaboration fosters the sharing of data and expertise, leading to a more comprehensive understanding of global monsoon dynamics. Farmers in diverse monsoon-affected regions could benefit from increasingly precise and localized forecasts, empowering them to make informed decisions about planting, irrigation, pest management, and harvesting. This enhanced predictability promises not only to improve yields and reduce risks but also to contribute to greater resilience against the impacts of climate change, which are increasingly affecting monsoon patterns worldwide. “The Future ECG” in this global context signifies a hopeful outlook, one where continued scientific progress translates into a more secure and prosperous future for all those whose lives and livelihoods are intricately linked to the monsoons. It is a vision of a globally vibrant agricultural heartbeat, sustained by the everevolving science of forecasting and the collective commitment to supporting monsoon-dependent communities worldwide.

Introduction Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has emerged as one of the gravest threats to modern medicine, undermining decades of progress in infectious disease control. It is cited by the World Health Organization (WHO) as one of the top 10 threats to global health. In 2019 alone, AMR was associated with approximately 4.95 million deaths, including 1.27 million directly attributable to resistant bacterial infections. This makes AMR a leading cause of death worldwide, surpassing HIV/AIDS (0.86 million deaths) and malaria (0.64 million deaths) in the same year. Projections suggest that if the trend continues unchecked, AMR could cause 10 million deaths annually by 2050, representing a profound human-cost escalation. Livestock and Animal burden While the quantitative burden of AMR in animals is not yet globally mapped, its effects in livestock are already both profound and alarming. Over 70% of all antimicrobials globally are used in farm animalsfrequently for growth promotion and disease prevention—not just treatment. This widespread use contributes to emerging resistance in key pathogens—Salmonella, E. coli, Campylobacter in poultry, and severe swine dysentery in pigs. In some outbreaks, swine dysentery, resistant to conventional treatment, has caused up to 90% morbidity and 30% mortality in weaned pigs. Animal-to-Human Transmission and the One Health Paradigm Antimicrobial resistance in livestock doesn’t stay on the farm—it seeps into the environment and crosses over to humans via food chains, direct contact, and environmental pathways. For example, substandard veterinary medicines and antibiotic misuse has been traced in zoonotic infections and veterinary-tohuman AMR transmission.Surveillance gaps remain: the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) acknowledges that while human-related AMR mortality is well-documented, the animal health burden is not yet quantified globally—though numerous projects are underway to address this gap. The failure of conventional antibiotics to treat resistant infections highlights the urgent need for alternative therapeutic strategies. Among the most promising options is bacteriophage therapy—the use of viruses that specifically target and kill bacteria. Bacteriophages Bacteriophages, often referred to simply as phages, are viruses that infect and replicate within the bacteria. They are considered as the most abundant biological entities on Earth, with an estimated amount 10³¹ phage particles present in the biosphere—outnumbering bacteria by approximately tenfold. Phages are naturally found in diverse ecosystems including soil, ocean, sewage, and even within the microbiomes of humans and animals.

Introduction

Prebiotics are non-digestible food ingredient which beneficially affects the host by selectively stimulating the growth and/or activity of one or a limited number of health-promoting bacteria in the intestinal tract, thus improving the host‘s microbial balance (Gibson and Roberfroid, 1995). Normally, prebiotics contain some type of a non-digestible carbohydrate fraction (Rehman et al., 2009). Almost 90% of oligosaccharides escape digestion in the small intestine and reach the colon where they selectively stimulate the growth and/or activity of beneficial bacteria like Bifidobacteria, Lactobacillus and Streptococcus, providing prebiotic properties (Stanton et al., 2003). These bacteria populate the gut filling any niches were pathogenic bacteria may attempt to take hold. This concept is better known as competitive exclusion. Prebiotics function by lowering the gut pH through lactic acid production, inhibiting/preventing colonization of pathogens, modifying metabolic activity of normal intestinal flora, and stimulation of the immune system (Doyle and Erickson, 2006). Studies have demonstrated that these bacteria reduce pathogenic bacteria like Salmonella spp., Clostridium diffile and Campylobacter spp. (Hopkins and Macfarlane, 2003; Stern et al. 2000), by diverse mechanisms including competitive exclusion of nutrients or adhesion sites to intestinal mucosa (Stern et al. 2000) and fatty acid of short chain production, like propionic and butyric acids, which modifies the acidic conditions and inhibits the growth of microorganisms that cause infections (Collins and Gibson, 1999).

In simple words natural resources can be defined as any part of our environment such as land, air, minerals, forest, rangeland, wild life, fish and human beings.

The sum total of all physical, chemical, biological and social factors which compose the surroundings of man is referred to as environment and each component of these surroundings constitute a “resource”.  The natural resources are land, water, air, minerals, forests, rangeland, wild life or even human beings known as natural resource.

The five basic natural resources are energy, matter, space, time and diversity.

Abstract

The primary commercial energy sources such as coal, oil and natural gas poses an enormous challenge to our development goals including environmental degradation, as India is not well endowed with these exhaustible natural resources. Further, these conventional sources are also not available in right quantity and producing environmental pollution manifold in land, air and water. There are number of unit operations in food processing and value addition consuming bulk of conventional energy sources where renewable energy sources can easily be integrated for energy conservation and environment protection. There is significant potential for application of Renewable Energy Sources in different unit operation of food processing including drying of food products for energy conservation and for reducing hydrocarbon emissions.

12.1 Introduction

The name was coined by George W. Snedecor, in honour of Sir Ronald A. Fisher. The object of the F-test is to find out whether the two independent estimates of population variance differ significantly or whether the two samples may be regarded as drawn from the normal populations having the same variance.

LAND VERSUS SOIL

Land is a part of Earth’s surface that is not covered by water. It is used for agriculture, building houses, of?ce buildings, schools, hospitals, roads, railroads and even water canals. Land is measured by area [length (l) × width (w)] and the units are square meters (m²), square centimeters (cm²) etc. On the other hand, soil is Earth’s crust, which could vary from a few centimeters to a few meters in thickness (depth), needs a measure of volume [length (l) × width (w) × depth (d)] and the units are cubic meters (m³), cubic centimeters (cm³) etc. Soil is thus a three-dimensional natural body on Earth’s surface that provides anchorage to growing plants/ trees and shelter to soil biota and is responsible for the storage of water and plant nutrients, which are essential for crop production. In addition, it helps in the biodegradation of soil pollutants and puri?cation of ground water, the major source of drinking water in the world. Soil feeds all living beings on Earth and its degradation is one of the reasons for inadequate human nutrition

Phenolic compounds constitute a major class of plant secondary metabolites that are widely distributed in the Plant Kingdom. Plant phenolics are biosynthesized through the shikimate/phenylpropanoid pathway leading to different compound classes. They may occur in their natural sources in free forms, as glycosylated or acylated derivatives, and as oligomeric and polymerized structures, such as hydrolyzable and condensed tannins, phlorotannins or lignins. They may also be found linked to plant matrix components such as cell walls, carbohydrates or proteins. It should be indicated that although the terms “plant phenolics” and “polyphenols” are indistinguishably used by some authors, they are not synonymous.

Plant diseases are caused by different etiological agents like Fungi, Bacteria, Viruses, Viroids, Phytoplasmas, Rickettsia like bacteria, Nematodes, Algae and Protozoan parasites. To control these specific pathogens and the diseases caused by them, a specific group of medicine/chemical molecule is required.

Introduction India is a country of festivals and celebrations. Indian sweets enjoy a legendary reputation across the world. India is home to a number of delicious sweets that play a vital role in every Indian celebration. While gulab jamuns, rasgullas and kaju katlis may be the most popular sweets in the country (Pal Sanchari, 2016). Functions and events in India are celebrated with intake of sweets. Also, it is customary to sweeten the mouth in social gathering like marriage, birthday, poojas, etc. (Gulati and Misra, 2014). In the past few years, guidelines are formulated based on analyses of all published scientific studies on the consumption of sugars. In view of the rising prevalence of overweight, obesity and related disorders globally, in 2002, the WHO recommended that sugar should be less than 10 percent of daily calories. The consensus dietary guidelines for Indians in 2011 recommend less than 10% of total calories from free sugars per day. In May 2014, the expert panel of WHO recently recommended decreasing sugar intake to 5% of total calorie intake to combat obesity. A high intake of added sugars is a primary risk factor for diabetes. It is these added sugars in sweets that makes them palatable, but also does the physical damage. (Willet Brian, 2011). People have developed taste towards food in which fat and sugar contents are high.

Introduction
Mangoes (Mangifera Indica L.), often referred to as the “king of fruits,” are celebrated for their rich flavour, nutritional value, and versatility in culinary applications (Swaroop et al., 2018). Globally, mangoes hold a significant economic and cultural position. Mangoes are grown in over 90 countries, with India, China, and Thailand being leading producers. They contribute
significantly to the agricultural economies of these and other tropical and subtropical regions (Makarabbi, 2023). Mangoes are a major export commodity for many countries, generating substantial foreign exchange. For instance, India’s mango exports account for a sizable share of the global mango market, valued at millions of dollars annually. In many developing countries, mango farming supports millions of smallholder farmers, providing employment and a source of income (Thakor, 2019). Mangoes are enjoyed in numerous forms— fresh, dried, as juices, pickles, and chutneys. They are also a key ingredient in various traditional dishes and desserts across different cultures. Mangoes play a central role in several cultural festivals and rituals, symbolizing prosperityand good fortune in countries like India and the Philippines. Mangoes are rich in essential vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants, including vitamins A and C, folate, and fiber. Their consumption is associated with various health benefits, such as improved immunity, digestive health, and skin care (Yahia et al., 2023). While mangoes offer significant benefits, their cultivation faces several challenges, primarily due to pest infestations that can severely impact both yield and fruit quality. Effective management of these pests is crucial to ensure sustainable mango production (Singh and Baradevanal, 2021).

Man have used different animals like cattle, buffaloes, horses, donkeys, mules, yak, camel and elephants for different kinds of work. Draft animals evolved during course of time have advantages of stability, sustainability and environmental friendliness. Different animals have different draught capacities for performing different types of work. The approximate power developed by various animals in terms of horse power are- Horse-1.0: Bullock-0.74: Buffalo-0.75: Cow-0.45: Maule-0.75: Donkey- 0.35. Draught developed by the animal is generally proportional to its body weight. Draught ability: Work is done when force is exerted to move an object over a distance. Work in the strict sense of “Force exerted x distance through which the force is moved”. Work performed by animals can be measured by quantifying their capacity to generate power. Draught Power (W) = Draught (N) x Speed (m/s) Management of different working animals 1. Cattle and Buffalo Bullocks: they are used for various operations like ploughing, harrowing, threshing, harvesting, for lifting water and for transporting people and agricultural produce.  The average speed of a pair of bullocks pulling a cart is around 4-5 km per hour. If not overdriven, they can travel 25-30 km or even 40 km in favorable condition. Atmospheric 

Transmission electron microscope (TEM)

The transmission electron microscope (TEM) operates on the same basic principles as the light microscope but uses electrons instead of light. What you can see with a light microscope is limited by the wavelength of light. TEMs use electrons as “light source” and their much lower wavelength makes it possible to get a resolution a thousand times better than with a light microscope.

We can see objects to the order of a few angstrom (10^-10 m). For example, we can study small details in the cell or different materials down to near atomic levels. The possibility for high magnifications has made the TEM a valuable tool in both medical, biological and materials research.

Introduction

Successful marketing is important to every business. Marketing is a critical tool for establishing awareness, attracting new customers and building lasting relationships. It is the process of planning and executing conception, pricing, promotion and distribution of your ideas, goods or services to satisfy the needs of individual consumers or organisations. It is as important to put adequate efforts on marketing your product or service, no matter whatever time you have dedicated to development of part of it.

We live in an electronic era, where the globe has shriveled into our fingertips. Customers are having lot of options to choose from. Information of what you need is reaching you within a click, that your decisions are often being guided by such information. Marketing uses communication and advertising tactics to persuade customers that your brand, including your products and services are exactly what they need. Marketing is thus crucial to your business which can have a bearing on the success rate and requires research, planning and appropriate budget allocations.

One of the important concepts in marketing is that of marketing mix. The elements of this mix are: product, pricing, physical distribution and promotion. Marketing management is that which optimizes the elements in the marketing mix, so that organisation is able to achieve its objectives while gaining customer utility. This chapter throws light on various aspects of marketing mix that an entrepreneur needs to focus upon to ensure success.