eChapters

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), the giant molecule that carries genetic information in living things, is made up of just a few chemical building blocks that bond together in very particular ways. A typical molecule of DNA consists of two strands that are linked together. A segment can be visualized as a ladder-like structure:

The DNA as made of two strands, a left and a right, which are linked in the middle. In reality, since the ladder is twisted, there really is no “right” or “left,” but we use that terminology here since it applies to the model graphs. The square shapes and diamonds you see in the middles of the “rungs” are the links, which are meant to represent the different chemical bonds between the two strands of DNA.

The selection of right dog for the required purposes like watching, hunting, guarding, showing, companionship and even animal associated therapies nowadays, warrants a detailed information on various dog breeds, like physical and other specific characteristics which may be different to each other. This  chapter  gives important characteristics of dog breeds and guidelines for buying a pup.

3.1    Crop Water Requirements
    
3.2    Water Distribution in Soils and Wetting Pattern
    
3.3    Selection of Number of Distributors per Plant
    
3.4    System Capacity
    Questions & Problems
        
References

1.1    Introduction

1.2    Histories and Development
    
1.3    Components of Drip Irrigation System
    
1.4    Types of Drip System
    
1.5     Advantages and Disadvantages
    
1.6    Evaluation and Futuristic Approach of Drip Irrigation in India Questions & Problems
        
References

2.1    Definition of Droughts
    
2.2    Types of Droughts
    2.2.1    Meteorological Droughts
    2.2.2    Agricultural Droughts
    2.2.3    Hydrological Droughts
    2.2.4    Socio-economic Droughts
    
2.3    Criteria for Classification of Droughts
    Meteorological Droughts
    Agricultural Droughts
    Hydrological Droughts
    
2.4    Data requirements in Drought Analysis
    
2.5    Drought Indices
    2.5.1    Rainfall-based Indices
    2.5.2    Climate Derivate Based Indices
    2.5.3    Remote Sensing Based Indices
    2.5.4    Processes Based Indicators
    
2.6    Assessment of Drought Prone Regions in India
    
2.7    Indicators for Declaration of  Droughts in India
    2.7.1     Rainfall Deficiency
    2.7.2    Area Under Sowing
    2.7.3    Normalized Difference Vegetation Index
    
2.8    Drought Management Procedures in India
    
2.9    Drought Code adopted by Local Governments
    
2.10    Spatial Variability of Droughts and their Frequency of Occurrence in India
    
2.11    Drought Vulnerability Assessment
    
2.12    Vulnerability of Society to Drought
        
References

Good Practices for Drought Management
    7.1    Drought Planning and Preparedness
    7.1.1    Drought Planning in India
    7.2    Global Experiences in Drought Planning
    7.2.1    USA
    7.2.2    South Africa
    7.2.3    African Nations
    7.2.4    Namibia
    7.2.5    Ethiopia
    7.2.6    Botswana
Drought management plans in Europe
    7.2.7    Spain
    7.2.8    England and Wales
    7.2.9    Portugal
    7.2.10    Australia
    7.2.11    China
    7.2.12    Palestine
    7.2.13    Global Initiatives
    7.3    Drought Preparedness Action Plans in India
    7.3.1    Drought Preparedness Checklist
    7.4    Drought Preparedness Action Plans in Different Countries
    7.4.1    Arizona State in USA
    7.4.2    Texas State in USA
    7.4.3    Italy
    7.4.4    Mediterranean Region
    7.4.5    Pakistan
    7.4.6    Darfur in Sudan
    7.4.7    Bangladesh
    7.5    Indigenous Knowledge for Drought Management
    7.5.1    Astro Meteorological Methods
    7.5.2    Traditional Knowledge in Weather Prediction
     7.5.3    Traditional wisdom in Drought Risk Region (DRR)
        Rajasthan and Bundelkhand region in Uttar Pradesh
    7.5.4    Indigenous technologies for moisture conservation 
        in dry lands of semi-arid regions of India
    7.6    Traditional Wisdom for Drought Management in a few selected countries
    7.7    Role of Weather-based Agro-advisories
    7.7.1    Strategies for dissemination of advisories
    7.7.2    Role of ICAR and AICRPAM on Agromet Services
    7.7.3    Agromet Advisory services through mobile phone
    7.7.4    Status of Agromet Advisory Services in other Countries
    7.8    Value Addition to Agromet Information
    7.8.1    AICRP on Agrometeorology
    7.8.2    Thumb rules for weather-pest/diseases
    7.9    Contingency Crop Planning for Minimizing Risks
    7.9.1    Contingency Crop Planning for Rainfed Regions of India
    7.10    Drought Proofing Mechanisms
    7.10.1    Watershed Development for Drought Management
    7.10.2    Watershed Development in India
    7.10.3    The Success Stories of Watershed as a Drought Proofing Mechanism
    7.10.4    Watershed Policies and Recommendations
    7.10.5    Farm Ponds for Drought Management
    7.10.6    Success Stories of Farm Ponds
    7.11    Rainfed Technologies for the Drought Management in different agro climatic region
    7.12    Farmer’s Awareness on Climate Management
    7.12.1    India
    7.12.2    In other Countries
    7.13    Role of ICT in Climate Risk Management through AAS
    7.13.1    India
    7.13.2    Application of ICT in Providing Advisories in other Countries
    7.14    Integrated Drought Management Strategies through Farming Systems Approach
    7.14.1    Drought Adaptation Strategies in Rajasthan and in Maharashtra
    7.14.2    Improvement and Rural Livelihood
    7.15    Drought Mitigation Measures
    7.15.1    Drought Mitigation Plans
    7.15.2    Soil water Conservation and Recharging of Ground water Methods
    7.15.3    Traditional Water Harvesting and Conservation 
        Techniques
        References

4.1    Approaches for Drought Monitoring
    
4.2    Weather Network System in Different Countries
    
4.3    Drought Monitoring using Climatological, Hydrological and Combination Approaches in Different Countries
    
4.4    International Cooperation in Drought Monitoring
    
4.5    Drought Monitoring Mechanism in India
    
4.6    Early Warning and Decision Support System
    4.6.1    Software for Drought Detection, Monitoring and Early Warning
    4.6.2    Decision Support System for Droughts Developed Outside India
    
4.7    GIS and Drought Monitoring
        
References

Introduction

Stress is usually defined as an external factor that exerts a disadvantageous influence on the plant. In most cases, stress is measured in relation to plant survival, crop yield, biomass accumulation or the primary assimilation processes (CO₂ and mineral uptake), which are related to overall growth. Stresses can be biotic, imposed by other organisms or abiotic arising from an excess or deficit in the physical or chemical environment. Biotic stress arises by attack of bacteria, viruses, fungi, invertebrates and even other plants, whereas abiotic stress occurs due to drought, water logging, high or low temperatures, excessive soil salinity, imbalance of mineral nutrients in the soil, heavy metals and too much or too little light. Stresses trigger wide range of plant responses, from altered gene expression and cellular metabolism to changes in growth rates and crop yields.

Introduction

Drought is temporary reduction in water or moisture availability significantly below the normal or expected amount for a specific period. This condition occurs either due to inadequacy of rainfall or lack of irrigation facilities, unexploitation or deficient availability for meeting the normal crop requirement in the context of the agro-climatic conditions prevailing in any particular area. This has been scientifically computed as Moisture Index (MI). Drought in this context can be defined as adverse MI or adverse water balance which may be attributable not only to a prolonged dry spell due to lack or sufficient rainfall but also due to such other factors as excessive evapo-transpiration losses, high temperature, low soil holding etc.

Drugs acting on alimentary system

Drugs acting on respiratory system

Drugs acting on urinary system

Drugs acting on genital system

Drugs acting on musculoskeletal system

Antineoplastic drugs

Antimicrobials

Antifungal

Antiprotozoal

Anthelmintics

The drug action can be adversely affected by the presence/concomitant administration of another drug/ agent, may be inhibiting its absorption, metabolism or excretion. Some of the drugs are incompatible with IV fluids, resulting in their inefficacy. The important drug interactions to be taken into consideration while administering a drug, are tabulated in this chapter.

This statement signifies that the casualty of people is not due to the earthquake but due to the damage of buildings by earthquake forces. In developed countries, the casualty and loss of property is very minimal in comparison to the death toll and losses in India in the event of earthquakes of same magnitude. It has been experienced in the past that on the event of earthquakes of Richter magnitude scale of 6 or more, the death toll in India is in terms of thousands where as in Western Countries, it is multiple of tens. The less casualty is due to less damage of buildings and other infrastructures which in turn is due to the design and construction of Buildings and other structures as per the earthquake resistant theory. This paper discusses the issues related to the earthquake hazards in India and the concept of earthquake resistant structures.

Appendix-'C'    :    Damage Prevention and Rehabilitation by Retrofitting
    
Appendix-'D'    :    Dos and Don'ts While Constructing Buildings
    
Case Study    :    Bhuj Earthquake 26th January, 2001
            Eyjafjallajoekull (Iceland) Volcano - 2010

Introduction

The literatures and researcher data showed that there is negative impacts of agricultural expansion, landscape modification and deforestation on biodiversity, ecosystem services, alteringthe species composition and their ecological functions (Tscharntke et al. 2005; Priess et al. 2007; Flynn et al. 2009; Senior et al. 2013; Deguines et al. 2014; Kumar 2016) which can lead to considerable changes in critical ecosystem processes. On the other hand, an increasingly industrialized global economy, rapid population growth, land degradation, land use pattern and role of various human activities have led to dramatically increased the pressure on the natural resources such as the available land for sustaining the livelihoods, and with over exploitation and extraction of the natural resources the ecosystems are becoming unsustainable and fragile since last century (Kumar 2017). Standardization of cultural practices is one of the primary objectives to make the system ecologically, sustainable and economically viable (Gill et al.2009).

Abstract: The Santhals of Orissa raise Teak (Tectona grandis) and Cashew nut(Anacardium occidentale) on their marginal and wastelands randomly to meet their contingencies. Upland is utilized for short duration upland paddy cultivation for food. The sporadically grown Teak and Cashew is used as insurance crops for meeting the high risk of dry land paddy. This work is unique and innovative as it was carried out in participatory mode on the pooled land from 14 Santhal households.  It is a maiden attempt in Orissa to develop Agroforestry models using forestry (teak) and horticulture (cashewnut) interventions into the paddy cultivation on uplands by Santhals without much alteration in their age old traditional agricultural practice. The basic objective of this research is to develop most profitable Agroforestry system(s) to provide best land use option for the risk prone dry land paddy cultivation to improve the farmers’ economy with simultaneous natural resource conservation.
 
The Agroforestry models Silvi-horticulture (Teak and Cashewnut)  Agri-silviculture (Paddy and Teak), Agri-horticulture (Paddy and Cashewnut) and Agri-silvi-horticulture (Teak, Cashew nut and Paddy) were developed by the Santhal tribe in Mayurbhanj District of Orissa. The inputs and planting material were sponsored by a leading NGO- Gamin Vikas Trust, which is working on poverty alleviation through Natural Resource Management of the State.

2.1    Ecosystem
    2.1.1 Major Components of Ecosystems
    2.1.2 Energy and Matter Flow in Ecosystems
    2.1.3 Various Types of Ecosystems
    
2.2    Biodiversity
    2.2.1 Genetic Diversity
    2.2.2 Species Diversity
    2.2.3 Ecosystem Biodiversity
    2.2.4 Values of Biodiversity
    2.2.5 Threats of Biodiversity
    2.2.6 Endangered and Endemica Species of India
    2.2.7 Biodiversity Conservation

1. Introduction

The culinary banana (Musa ABB) of Assam and North East India (locally known as kachkal) is an important and cheap source of vegetable in the diet of local people. It is considered as one of the potential sources of carbohydrates, starch, polyphenols, micronutrients and functionally important bioactive compounds (Khawas et al., 2016). Native starches have limited use in food application as it has many weakness such as narrow peak viscosity range, poor process tolerance, low shear stress resistance, hydrophilicity, thermal decomposition, high retro gradation, and synersis and cooked starches will formed a weak, cohesive and rubbery paste. These facts motivated the employment of modified starches as important functional ingredients in processed foods in recent years because of their improved functional properties over unmodified starches (Fleche et al., 1985).

To overcome these problems physical. Chemical and enzymatic modification of Starch is done. Chemical modification of starch generally involves esterification, cross linking, etherification or oxidation of the available hydroxyl groups on the β-D-glucopyranosyl units that make up the starch polymer.

Introduction

In India out of the total 142 million ha of arable land around 67 per cent of them are affected by some form of land degradation due to development of salinity/sodicity or acidification, erosion by water or wind or chemical contamination. Frequent use of tillage operation under conventional cultivation system particularly in rolling terrain is one of the major causes of land degradation through accelerated water and wind erosion. The basic purpose of primary tillage operations are to control weeds, increase the availability of nutrient to plant through accelerated mineralization of organic matter, and to keep the field clean and pulverized for ease of sowing of the next crop. However the bare and pulverized top soil made them vulnerable to accelerated soil loss through runoff and also to erosion loss of soil by wind in drier agro-climatic regions. Besides soil loss, conventional tillage operation breaks the soil aggregates and exposes the soil organic carbon locked inside the aggregates to accelerated microbial degradation and thus results in net loss of organic carbon from the arable ecosystem.

Soil and nutrients are important factors for sustainable crop production in agriculture. Water erosion contributes more than 60% to the area under soil degradation in India. Soil erosion has been a serious threat to sustainable agriculture. However, soil and water conservation measures plays important role in improving the productivity of natural resources. India presently supports 17% of the global population with a geographical area of 329 Mha on merely 2.5% world’s land area and 4% fresh water resources. The net cultivable area in the country is about 140Mha is remaining constant or even squeezing from the pressures of urbanization, industrialization, infrastructure development and to house the ever increasing population. The loss of productive soil is another concern. The loss of fertile top soil by water erosion is estimated to be about 5334 Mt per year with it nearly 8.4 million tonnes (mt) of nutrients was estimated in eroded soil still holds true about in i.e. 2.5 mt nitrogen, 3.3 mt phosphorus and 2.6 mt potassium per hectare is lost due to ill soil and water management practices (Dhruvanarayana and Ram Babu, 1983).

1. Introduction

The Refractance Window drying system uses circulating hot water, usually at 90°C and at atmospheric pressure, so that it can carry the thermal energy to the material to be dehydrated. Thermal energy is transferred to the wet product from circulating hot water through a plastic interface which is transparent to the infrared radiation. The actual product temperature is kept below 70°C. The heated water is recycled and reused, which helps in improving the thermal efficiency of the system. The use of hot water as the heat transfer medium and at temperatures just below boiling is a design feature that is unique to this drying method. In RW drying, there are three modes of heat transfer, namely conduction, convection, and radiation. The process water is heated by steam within an insulated tank and then circulated in shallow troughs to transfer thermal energy to the plastic conveyor. As the plastic conveyor is very thin, it reaches the temperature of hot water flowing beneath it almost immediately. By conduction and radiation, the thermal energy from the hot water is transmitted through the plastic conveyor. The use of process water at temperatures just below boiling and a thin plastic conveyor with infrared transmission in the wavelength range that matches the absorption spectrum for water all work together to facilitate rapid drying.