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Experimental mutagenesis is an important unconventional source to produce mutations in high frequencies in cultivated plants. It makes possible the achievement of desired breeding objectives or atleast decisive progress in this direction through selection of mutants. By establishing extensive collection of mutants based on productive varieties excellent sources of valuable material for theoretical studies and for breeding work can be provided. The induced mutagenesis helps in diversifying varieties and in internal rectification. The simultaneous realization of different breeding objectives may be possible through induced mutagenesis especially in leguminous crops.

Stubbe (1959) stated that mutation breeding as a modern method of plant breeding has proved its justification. It mutation breeding, basic information is a prerequisite on the type of spectrum of induced mutations and relative effectiveness and efficiency of different mutagens.

A process control system that identifies the hazardous points in the food production process is known as HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point). It puts into place many stringent actions to prevent any hazards from occurring. In any food process if there is strict monitoring and controlling steps, the chances for hazards are minimum. Today, HACCP is an integral part of modern food industry that identifies and controls the major food risks. These are like microbiological, chemical and physical contaminants. These can also be practiced at home scale by checking proper storage, handling, cooking and cleaning procedures. These steps have resulted in industries taking greater responsibility for and controlling the food safety risk factors. This helps in better consumer protection, agriculture, the food processing industries and promotes domestic and international food trade.

The temperature of food storage is important. Below 4⁰C the food pathogens do not grow. Above 60⁰C some colonies begin to die. However, almost all die at 71⁰C. How hot is the food served is important for food safety. The size of the piece is important to how quickly it will cook all the way through. The smaller the piece the faster it will cook. Large or thicker pieces take a longer time to be cooked. Otherwise cooking for a longer time is better so that pathogenic microorganisms do not grow. In case of a thicker piece the color must be checked inside to outside after cooking which should be consistent. If the meat has the bone, check the color/temperature closest to the bone in the thickest part. In case of meat the contamination usually gets introduced while butchering and the practices used. The street food on a cart is perhaps the most contaminated as it has some level of bacteria in it. The meat in the decorated malls also has pathogenic bacteria. The environment plays a very pivotal role which can recontaminate the food even after proper cooking. The amount of harmful pathogens keeps growing in number with the passage of time. Fresh from the grill is the best, an hour or two is not ideal, half a day or overnight could make a person sick. Due to the reason that consumers do not know the time and temperature of cooking it is important to eat food which is freshly prepared.

Higher plants demand certain basic things for their growth. As many as 52 factors (basic things) influencing crop growth have been identified :

• 100 per cent of the land has sufficient CO₂ in the atmosphere and sunlight
• 83 per cent have favourable temperature
• 64 per cent have favourable topography
• 46 per cent have reliable rainfall
• 40 per cent have satisfactory fertile land

In 1985, Sir Alec Jeffreys developed restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP), which quickly became the standard technique for DNA testing throughout the 1980s. RFLP provided the world with the first form of genetic testing based on DNA, the body’s genetic material.

Definition : RFLP analysis is a difference in homologus DNA sequences that can be detected by the presence of fragments of different lengths after digestion of the samples in question with specific restriction endonucleases (RE).

A restriction fragment length polymorphism , or RFLP, (commonly pronounced “rif lip”), is a variation in the DNA sequence of a genome that can be detected by breaking the DNA into pieces with restriction enzymes and analyzing the size of the resulting fragments by gel electrophoresis. It is the sequence that makes DNA from different sources different, and RFLP analysis is a technique that can identify some differences in sequence (when they occur in a restriction site). Though DNA sequencing techniques can characterize DNA very thoroughly, RFLP analysis was developed first and was cheap enough to see wide application. Analysis of RFLP variation was an important tool in genome mapping, localization of genetic disease genes, determination of risk for a disease, genetic fingerprinting, and paternity testing.

13.1. Storage pests

13.1.1. Rice weevil: Sitophilus oryzae, S. zeamais, S. granarius

1. Host range: Wheat, rice, maize, sorghum, paddy.

History of Soil Microbiology

There is enough evidence in the literature to believe that microorganisms were the earliest of the living things that existed on this planet. Man depends on crop plants for his existence and crop plants in turn depend on soil and soil microorganisms for their nutrition. Scientists from the beginning studied the microorganisms from water, air, soil, etc. and recognized the role of microorganisms in natural processes and realized the importance of soil microorganisms in the growth and development of plants.Thus, microorganisms have been playing a significant role long before they were discovered by man. Today, the soil is considered to be the main source of scavenging the organic wastes through microbial action and is also a rich storehouse for industrial microflora of great economic importance.

Unlike soil science whose origin can be traced back to Roman and Aryan times, soil microbiology emerges as a distinct branch of soil science during the first half of the 19^th century. Some of the notable contributions made by several scientists in the field of soil microbiology are highlighted in the following paragraphs.

Anton Von Leeuwenhoek (1673) discovered and described microorganisms through his own made first simple microscope with a magnification of 200 to 300 times. He observed minute, moving objects which he called “animalcules” (small animals) which are now known as protozoa, fungi, and bacteria. He for the first time made the authentic drawings of microorganisms (protozoa, bacteria, fungi).

Rapeseed and mustard are termed in different names in different places. Sarson and toria (lahi) are generally termed as rape seeds. Rai, raya or laha are termed as mustard. Rape seed and mustard belongs to the species Brassica of the family Cruciferae. It is an annual plant or biennial herbs. Rape seed and mustard are the major rabi oilseed crops of India.

Agriculture depends mainly on natural resources like land situation, soil, water and a favourable climate. Continuous agricultural practices adopted without conservation of such precious resources may lead to unsustainability of growth in agriculture. Conservation of these resources and their sustainable use with appropriate measures would be required for a sustainable agriculture.

21.1 Introduction

Globe artichoke, commonly known as artichoke, is a perennial crop grown for its flower buds. It has thistle like plants. The above ground portion dies each year during winter and again emerges in spring. It is generally propagated by means of suckers or off shoots from the old root stocks and also by dividing the old crown into pieces with a portion of the stem. The buds are harvested before they become loose and fibrous. It is very nutritious as it contains appreciable quantities of proteins, carbohydrates and minerals. It is a herbaceous perennial in which the globular immature flower heads or buds and the edible bracts are used as vegetable. 

The term “artificial intelligence” (AI) refers to a wide variety of theories and technologies that are used to the resolution of issues characterized by a high level of logical or algorithmic complexity. It cuts across a wide range of f ields, such as mechanical modeling, software engineering, data science, and statistics. Many artificial intelligence (AI) technologies, which first appeared in the 1950s, have lately been refined or extended thanks to advances in computer performance. Recent advancements have been made possible by the creation of interfaces between artificial intelligence and other fields of study, such as biomedicine, and by the collection of enormous amounts of data from a variety of fields, notably those related with the healthcare industry. First, Artificial intelligence helps with situational awareness, which is relevant in animal health and animal husbandry because it allows for the detection of patterns like repeated sequences of observations, forms like a protein, and signals like increased mortality especially in comparison to a baseline at various scales. A third option is computer-based decision making, or more practically, human decision support via knowledge - based systems, diagnostic support, and resource allocation, for instance.

The productivity of waste lands is extremely low, and the individuals who own them are impoverished and compelled to work for pay. Wastelands are therefore seen as a potent weapon for combating the problems of poverty and backwardness.
Definitions
Water and land are essential for the development of agriculture. Wasteland is eventually created when there is a decrease of vegetation cover, which causes erosion to take place. Waste lands are large areas of land that have been degraded and are rather difficult to plough.
The National Wasteland Development Board (NWDB) and the Planning Commission established a Technical Task Group. According to this group, wastelands are areas of deteriorated land that are currently underutilized due to various constraints, withthe exception of current use  (CSIR 1990). Depending on the random elements, the wastelands could be categorized under
1. I.erosion caused by water
2. Erosion caused by wind and
3. The Alkalinity and Salinity
The arid, stony, steeply sloped, and snow-covered wastelands are examples of the uncultivated wastelands.

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) is the principal and one of the most important horticultural products of India. In spite of its immense popularity and commercial importance, information relating to nutrient deficiency/toxicity symptoms in cashew has not progressed much. Nutrient deficiency is common in cashew growing soils as most of the cashew plantations in India are established on degraded slopes with poor fertility, where soil and water erosion are common phenomena. Nutrient deficiency in cashew is influenced both by soil and climate.

Abstract

This study evaluates the potential of remote sensing techniques for assessing the relationship between land degradation and poverty in Pali development block of Rajasthan. Due to climatic conditions that prevail in this area of the country, less facilities and management practices to conserve land and its fertility becomes an important factor for intensifying poverty. The other countenance of this is that it is poverty which leads to land degradation. This paper assesses the impact of poverty and land degradation on each other. The desertification intensity and BPL density is calculated and relation is seen using Chi square test. The goodness of fit is seen up to 5 per cent level of significance for land degradation and demographic data.  The desertification in agricultural area is also considered. The total degradation in the block calculated is 8.39 per cent. It is found that village with highest BPL density has more degradation intensity particularly in agricultural area, proving the agricultural based economy of the dry lands in Rajasthan. An example study is also done at village level.  Using cadastral map and satellite image classification, fields that require immediate attention have been identified. Demographic and degradation maps are also prepared.

Significant advancement in high throughput technologies (microarrays, automated sequencing and mass spectrometry), transcriptomics, the global study of transcription, together with genomics and proteomics, has undoubtedly contributed to a systems biology approach. These technologies have generated vast amount of sequence data from plants, animals and microorganisms. Fortunately, efficient computational tools (intelligent data networks, query, retrieval, analysis and visualization tools) have now optimized data mining, accelerating the process of discovery. The analysis of sequence variation is of major importance in genetic studies. In this context, molecular markers represent one of the most powerful tools for the analysis of variations in the genome and the association of heritable traits with underlying genetic variation. The development of high-throughput methods for the detection of simple sequence repeats (SSRs) and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) has led to a revolution in their use as molecular markers. The availability of large sequence data sets permits mining for these molecular markers, which may then be used for numerous applications such as genetic mapping, association mapping, evolutionary and phylogenic studies.

Introduction

Progress in plant biotechnological research has opened many avenues for basic and applied research in the field of crop plants. Plant tissue culture is an important component of biotechnology that involves in the improvement of crops. Besides this, plant tissue culture provides a good system for many basic studies in plant breeding, plant physiology, genetics and cell biology. Further, manipulation of cells through the modern technique of genetic engineering may lead to an introduction of new gene(s) to a host plant and the techniques of genetic engineering rely on plant tissue culture techniques. The regeneration of plants through plant tissue culture and their subsequent acclimatization and delivery to the field possesses many problems to make tissue culture technology a viable alternative proposition. The successful development of encapsulation technique for preparation of plant propagules in a nutrient gel has initiated a new line of research on artificial seeds. Application of this technology has been well recognized in several agronomically important crops and forest trees. Artificial seeds make a promising technique for propagation of transgenic plants, non-seeds producing plants, polyploids with elite traits and plant lines with problems in seed propagation.

Stable isotopes are chemical isotopes that may or may not be radioactive,but if radioactive, have half-lives too long to be measured. These isotopes decay into stable products. Eg. ¹⁴C having 6protons and electrons with 8 neutrons.

Most elements of biological interest (including C, H, O, N, and S) have two or more stable isotopes. Among the stable isotopes, the most useful as biological tracers are the heavy isotopes of carbon and nitrogen.

Oxygen therapy has been in vogue for more than century and it is key component in cardiorespiratory care both in human and veterinary medicine. It is recommended in all hypoxemic humans, dogs and cats (peripheral oxygen saturation < 90% to 94% or PaO2 < 70 mm Hg) presented with acute heart failure or respiratory diseases. But oxygen therapy in normoxemic subjects has remained controversial as some studies have shown detrimental effect (increased level of reactive oxygen species, oxidative stress, reduction in coronary blood flow and myocardial oxygen consumption) of oxygen therapy in subjects with normal oxygen level.

Sunflower was introduced as an oil seed crop in India in 1967. The crop is now widely cultivated in all parts of India and in any type of situation. Sunflower belongs to Compositae family and the cultivated species is Helianthus annus spp. macrocarpus. Apart from the edible oil species, there are non-oily types, other edible forms and ornaments. Helianthus tuberosus gives the edible tubers.

Extended Summary

Kiwifruit is recent crop introduction tohorticulture practices in Mid-Himalayan statesin India such as, Himachal Pradesh and J&K in the North-West and Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland in the North-Eastern Himalayas.Over past few years this fruit has attainedimmense popularity and among consumers due to its nutritional value, while also it has gained appeal among small and marginal farmers owing to its high benefit-cost ratio,particularly through Hi-Tech cultivation techniques.

Kiwifruit,also known as Chinese gooseberry (Actinidia chinensis Patch) is believed to have originated in China,although it gained popularity in New Zealand. In India, Kiwi was first introduced in Lal Bagh at Bengaluru,however,it was soon observed that the fruit could be cultivated well only inthe semi-temperate climate of Himachal Pradesh, around1963.

Mycobacteria are slender rods of varying lengths that sometimes show branching filamentous form resembling ‘fungal mycelium’. Hence, the name mycobacteria, meaning fungus like bacteria.
Although cytochemically gram positiive, the Mycobacteria do not take up the dyes of the gram stain because the cell walls are rich in lipids – Mycolic acid. Once a dye has been taken up by the cells they are not easily decolourised, even by acid-alcohol. Mycobacteria are therefore called as acid-fast bacilli. The genus includes animal and human pathogens as well as saprophytic members often referred to as atypical, anonymous, opportunistic, tuberculoid and MOTT (Mycobacteria other than typical tubercle) bacilli. Clasification of Mycobacteria (Tubercle Bacilli)
I. Slowly growing Mycobacteria
• Mycobacterium tuberculosis causes human tuberculosis in human and dogs.
• Mycobacterium bovis causes bovine tuberculosis in many animal species and also cause tuberculosis in human
• Mycobacterium africanum causes human tuberculosis.
• The human type (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) is primarily a pathogen for man. But can cause disease in cattle, pigs, dogs, monkeys, parrots and other species. The bovine type (Mycobacterium bovis) is a common cause of disease in domestic animal particularly cattle, pigs, cat, dogs and horse. The avian type (Mycobacterium avium) is primarily a pathogen for birds. But can cause disease in cattle, sheep, goat and pigs.