eChapters

Abstract: Lilium is one of the six major genera of flower bulbs produced worldwide. Species are native to diverse habitat within Northern hemisphere. Liliums have a lengthy association with various world cultures. As a result, flower breeders have created numerous genotypes during the millennia of breeding this crop which has enabled its establishment in the top ten cuts, potted flowering and garden crops worldwide. The crop arises from multiple species. Research has focused on development of late flowering genotypes with forcing ability, improvement of flower form/ shape, pollenless cultivars, disease resistance and floral longevity. The limited genetic information and trait heritability have been established for this crop. Wide crosses are routinely used to create new genetic variability. Breeders have created complex hybrids such as LA, OT, OTO, FA, FAA, FO and OA hybrids through in vitro embryo rescue techniques. Molecular biology is being used to engineer Lilium against LSV and TBV. Crop ideotypes prescribe numerous traits for incorporation by flower breeders and geneticists including short forcing time, late flowering in Asiatic lilies, enhanced shelf life, genetically controlled height, rapid propagation and cultivars requiring no vernalization for flowering.

ABSTRACT

Jasmine is one of the economically most important flower crops cultivated for its fragrant flowers and valuable essential oil. In vitro studies to explore the possibility of regeneration of plantlets from different explants and to undertake biochemical analysis to detect the flavour compounds if present in the in vitro cultures were taken up with local varieties of Jasminum grandiflorum.

Among the different explants tried, leaf bits were found ideal for callus induction, followed by petals and shoot tips. MS medium with 2, 4-D at 1.25 ppm was the suitable medium for callus induction in leaf explants. Miller medium with NAA at 1.25 ppm and BAP at 1.25 ppm was the suitable medium for callus induction in petal explants collected from 18 days old buds of local varieties of Jasminum grandiflorum. Among the different media combinations tried, MS medium supplemented with 0.2 ppm NAA and 0.3 ppm GA₂ is the best medium for callus induction in shoot apex explants of 10mm size. Direct regeneration of plants was obtained in 10 per cent of shoot apex explants cultured in MS medium supplemented with 0.2 ppm GA₁ and 3 ppm BAP in 60 days. A maximum of 95 per cent embryogenicity is induced in leaf callus transferred to MS basal medium supplemented with 1.5 per cent sucrose from MS medium with 2, 4-D at 1.0 ppm.

The peroxidase assay indicated that embryogenic calli had six isoperoxidases while the non-embryogenic had only two. Biochemical analysis of the callus samples showed high Phenylalanine ammonia lyase and phenol indicating the initiation of phenolic pathway, which branches out and ultimately leads to the synthesis of flavour compounds in callus.

Introduction

The first step of geostatistical analysis in R is the creation of dataset which is acceptable in R environment by using the data collected from field survey or laboratory experiments. Different type of data is collected during experiments e.g. sand content, silt content, organic carbon content, geographical location of data points, soil type, land use type etc. Here, we will discuss how these data are converted into a acceptable dataset format for R environment and how we manage these data. In R this task is performed in two steps. First, a data structure is created to hold the data and second is the entering or exporting the data into data structure.

Tikka or Leaf Spot

Cercospora arachidicola/ Phaeoisariopsis personatum

Economic Importance

• Tikka disease of ground nut is regarded as the most important fungal disease of this crop.
• The infection appears when the plants are one to two month old; one can see this disease in the month of September in the plains of our country.
• Losses due to this disease may go up to 15-50%.

ABSTRACT

Diabetes is a chronic endocrinologic disorder characterized by high blood levels of glucose due to insufficient secretion of insulin by the pancreas or improper utilization of insulin by target cells. More than 120 million people from all over the globe are estimated to suffer from this malady. Many plants and their constituents have become chief ingredients of a number of pharmaceutical preparations used against diabetes. An intensive survey undertaken for over 4 years in the tribal belts of Orissa to identify the plants used in folk medicine and the methodologies employed by the herbal healers have revealed that 35 species are being employed to cure diabetes. Out of 313 patients (185 males and 128 females) interviewed, 211 (67.5%) use Gymnema sylvestre, Momordica charantia, Trigonella foenum-graecum, Tinospora cordifolia, Pterocarpus marsupium, Andrographis paniculata and Rauwolfia serpentina in one form or the other regularly. Multi-plant preparations gave 80% results whereas single plant administration gave less than 50% results. Polyherbal treatment is advocated as multi-pronged attack to achieve desired results.

Abstract

Genus Artemisia L. (Asteraceae) has a long history of use in herbal medicine, owing to the presence of rich bioactive phytochemical diversity of it constituent species. Himalaya is hub of several species and species under this genus have been traditionally used in different ways for curing ailments by inhabitants of the areas where their populations sprawl. Few species such as A. annua and A. maritima are cultivated for their use in medicine. In addition, the species of the genus have found wide usage in matters connected to digestive system especially for treatment of worms and for preparation of herbal teas. Artemisnin, a potent source of anti-malarial drug extracted from some species, is most valuable bioactive phytochemical of this genus. Other important chemical constituents include santonin and scoparine. Reported studies suggest that the bioactive constituents present in this genus shows several biological activities such as antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anticancerous and other allied ones activities. Expansion of range and acclimatization in new habitats is exemplary in this genus. Present work reports the ways of range expansion, economic importance, conservation strategies and future prospects of this genus.

The development of the upper respiratory system composed of nasal cavities, naso pharynx and larynx is directly related to the development of the face. The nasal cavities are derived from ectoderm while nasopharynx and larynx are endodermal in origin. The lower respiratory system (trachea and lungs) is a derivative of the embryonic pharynx.

The epithelial lining of the lower respiratory system is endodermal in origin, while the surrounding connective tissue and cartilage are mesodermal in origin. The endoderm and underlying mesoderm from the floor of foregut i.e caudal part of pharynx grow caudally in midline and form the laryngo-tracheal groove at about the level of the branchial arches IV -VI from which the larynx and trachea arise. The laryngotracheal tube consists of an inner endodermal lining and an outer layer of splanchnic mesoderm. It grows into underlying mesenchyme. Ingrowths from the sides of the groove at about the level of the branchial arches IV - VI form a pair of ridges that grow towards each other and fuse forming a septum changing the groove into a tube with a blind end caudally. The rostral end opens into the floor of the pharynx. The blind caudal end expands in a bilobed manner into mesenchyme forming bronchial buds the primordia of right and left lungs while the groove is closing.

larynx : A pair of elevations, aryteniod swellings appears on the floor of the pharynx along midline at the level of branchial arch IV. The hypobranchial eminence is just infront of the arytenoid swellings. The depression between the hypobranchial eminence and the arytenoid swellings becomes the lumen of the larynx. The caudal part of the hypobranchial eminence forms the epiglottis. The arytenoid swellings and adjacent branchial arch mesenchyme form the other laryngeal cartilages and musculature. The thyroid cartilage arises from branchial arches III and IV. The other cartilages are derived from mesenchyme of branchial arches IV, V & VI. The intrinsic musculature of larynx is derived mostly from the branchial arch V and VI. With the exeption of the epiglottic cartilage the cartilages and muscles of the larynx are formed by the end of embryonic period.

Horticultural plants present a kaleidoscopic scenario from small herbs to very big deep rooted perennial trees. The associated rhizospheres present variable conditions as to supply of nutrients, water and air. The principles governing their physical, chemical and biological properties along with their relationship with plants need to be understood clearly. The plants differ in their requirements at various stages of growth; hence their tissues require constant monitoring of nutrient status for better productivity and quality. As nutrient behavior in soils is governed by soil properties and environmental conditions, measurement of such properties is often required. These include pH, salinity, organic matter, CaCO₃ and texture in drier areas the presence of Na and gypsum (CaSO₄2H₂O) is also of concern.The irrigation water is a source of dissolved salts which are also nutrients and in excess impede water and nutrient relations of soil and plant. It requires a thorough understanding of the principles underlying methods of collection, characterization of water, air and nutrient relations of soil-plant system, monitoring of plant nutrient status, quality of irrigation water and soil and water pollution for effective management of nutrients avoiding pollution.

Soil and plant analysis is a diagnostic instrument for soil fertility and basis for fertilizer recommendation; to know where and where not fertilizer is to be applied. Obtaining accurate and precise values has always being the basis of soil analysis.

Citrus (Citrus spp.)

Citrus is an important fruit crop and ranks third in area which is followed by mango and banana. They are grown in 105,396 hectares in India. Among the oranges, mandarin oranges, limes and sweet oranges are very popular while lemons, grape fruits, pummelos, sour and bitter oranges are of minor importance. The Citrus spp. are grown in larger extent in the states of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Assam, Orissa and Bihar.

Nematode menace in citrus gardens are very much realised. In 1912 the citrus nematode, Tylenchulus semipenetrans was reported from California and found to cause ‘slow decline’ disease. More than 30 genera of plant parasitic nematodes are associated with the Citrus spp. Among them, Tylenchulus semipenetrans, Radopholus citrophilus, Meloidogyne spp. Pratylenchus spp. Xiphinema spp. and Hoplolaimus spp. are often associated with the crop.

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The method of propagation in plants may be sexual or asexual. In sexual method of propagation, specialized reproductive cells called gametes are formed by the process of gametogenesis. Fusion of the male and female gametes leads to the development of an embryo and eventually the seed.

4.2 GAMETOGENESIS

The production of male and female gametes is known as gametogenesis. It occurs within microspores and megaspores. It involves only mitosis. It is of two types: (1) microgametogenesis and (2) megagametogenesis.

1. Botanical Name : Meyna laxiflora Robyns

2. Family : Rubiaceae

3. Common Name : Moina, Aliv

4. Name in Indian languages

Kutkura, Moin (Assamese), Mainphal, Muduna, Muyna, Muyuna (Bengal), Alu, Atu (Gujrati), Moina, Muduna, Muyuna (Hindi), Mullakare, Gundkare, gobergally (Kannada), Alu, Huloo, Halawni (Marathi), Pindi, Pinditaka, Pindituka, Pindu (Sanskirit), Manakkarai (Tamil), Segagadda, Veliki, Visikilamu (Telgu), Monono, Montaphoo (Odiya).

5. Description

It is a large common shrub or a small tree and commonly found in evergreen forests. Meyna is a genus of shrub and small trees distributed in tropical and subtropical region. The fruits are used for preparation of pickle.

Horticultural plants are grown for their produce like fruit, vegetable, flower, medicinal component, spices etc. Therefore, these plants should be managed in such a way that human desires for the purpose of growing them are fully satisfied in terms of quality and quantity of produce. This demands direct manipulation of plant growth itself or plant environment through various inputs. In manipulation of plant development, training and pruning are important for which our knowledge about plant development and its phenology has to be complete. These practices are important in fruit crops.

13.1. Types

Lamps: Head lamp, plough lamp, indicators

Switches: Safety switch, starter switch, etc

13.2. Components

Battery: A battery provides power to electrical or electronic circuits. The voltage rating of a battery tells how much electrical “pressure” the battery can provide. Battery energy is used to operate starter motor and to provide current to the ignition system during cranking. The electrolyte should always be maintained just below the maximum level, but should not go down below the 1/4^th level.

Alternator: Alternators are electromechanical devices used to convert mechanical energy to alternating current electrical energy. While some of the alternators use rotating magnetic field, some use linear. The functioning of alternators is similar to that of direct current generators. As the magnetic field around a conductor changes, a current is induced in the conductor. The rotating magnet or the rotor turns and cuts the field across the conductors. Thus, an electrical current is produced which causes the rotor to turn. This rotating magnetic field causes an AC voltage in the stator windings. In tractors, alternators are used to charge the battery and to power the electric system when its engine is running. An alternator is superior to a dynamo as it provides more precise output control, requires lesser maintenance, is more compact and requires no cut-out.

Abstract

Human milk is the dynamic fluid provides initial and essential nutrients to the neonates and play key role in development and growth of infant gut microflora, nerve system, immunity system and other organs. Composition of human milk varies with number of factors from geographical location, individual habits, stage and period of lactation to mature or pre mature born of infant. Each component and its bioavailability in human milk plays specific function in infant nourishment. Protein and non-protein nitrogenous compounds of milk provides essential bioactive component required for preventing infants form many diseases and develop immunity. Nucleotides involve in many enzymatic and metabolic activities. Milk contains 3.0 to 5.0% fat act as a major source of energy consisting of larger portion of triglycerides. Essential fatty acid of milk important for nerve system development in infant. Additionally, fat soluble vitamins plays in sight and immune development for new-born. A Human Milk Oligosaccharide is natural prebiotic present in human milk which helps in growth of bifidus bacteria and prevent respiratory tract infection in infants. Furthermore, micro components like vitamins, mineral, enzymes involved in various essential activity lead to healthy infant.

Involved in plant metabolic functions and the plant cannot complete its life cycle without the element.

7.1. Plant nutrient concentration and plant growth

1. Deficient

Lowest concentration of an essential element that limit yield severely and cause distinct deficiency symptoms.

The extension/research work organization consisted of seven distinct steps namely,

Situation analysis

Identification of problems and setting up of objectives

Designing of interventions

Preparing plan of work & implementation of project interventions

Monitoring of implementation process

Impact assessment

Project reconsideration

Adaptation is any feature of an organism which has survival value under the existing condition of its habitat. The basic of successful crop production is the selection of an adapted plant species and varieties. Plants may have morphological adaptation or physiological adaptation or both for the existing environment.

Adaptation to soil moisture

Hydrophytes: More number of stomata on the upper surface of the leaf, aerenchyma tissue in the roots of rice plants, stem is hollow/straw, internodes are longer in floating and submerged rice,

Mesophytes: Stomata are normal. Present both on upper and lower leaf surface, medium root growth.

Tannins: Group of plant phenolic compounds found in higher plants as secondary metabolites. Their main function is to defense against microorganisms, insects, and herbivores and in allelopathy.

Taxis (tactic orientation; formerly topotaxis): Movement of motile organisms, cells or organelles, the prevailing direction of which is determined by the direction of the stimulus.

TATA box (Hogness box): A sequence of nucleotides which serves as the main recognition site for the attachment of RNA polymerase in the promoter region of eukaryotic genes. Located at around 25 nucleotides upstream of the transcriptional start site. It consists of seven base consensus sequence, TATAAAA.

TCA cycle: Tricarboxylic acid cycle. It is also called as citric acid cycle or Krebs cycle, It is a step in aerobic degradation of glucose to convert into energy. During this cycle several intermediates are produced, which leads to several metabolic pathways. During this cycle, there is production of reductancts such as NADH, FADH and GTP.

Telomere: Sequences at both termini of each eukaryotic chromosome that facilitate replication.

Properties

1. Bacteroides, Dichelobacter and Fusobacterium are major gram negative anaerobes isolated from human and animals. Other gram negative anaerobes are listed below (Table-1).

2. The bacteria are tolerant to oxygen in comparison to strict anaerobes. The bacteria do not die after oxygen exposure.

3. The bacteria naturally inhabit the intestine and mucosal surfaces of human and animals. Majority of them are opportunistic pathogens. Often they cause mixed bacterial infection along with aerobes. The aerobes remove oxygen and create an anaerobic condition favourable for their growth. The aerobes may also supply other growth requirements. For e.g. Porphyromonas asaccharolytica requires vitamin K for its growth, supplied by another aerobic bacterium, not the host.

1. Introduction

For a proper understanding and analysis of women’s position in India’s rural economy, we require adequate and good quality data. This chapter examines the limitations of gender-disaggregated data on the rural economy of India with respect to three aspects: the ownership of land and other assets, participation in the rural workforce, and women’s share of agricultural incomes and earnings. In approaching the need for better data on gender, the following features of gender statistics as identified by UN organisations should be kept in mind (Corner undated)