eChapters

Introduction

In the modern corporate landscape, the Glass Ceiling remains an enduring challenge, obstructing the path to leadership positions for qualified individuals based on gender. This study embarks on a comprehensive analysis of the persistent gender discrimination inherent in leadership roles within corporations.

With a primary focus on measurement, analysis, and assessment, the study seeks to quantify the current prevalence of the Glass Ceiling, elucidate the strategies adopted by large corporations in addressing bias, and evaluate the influence of personal factors in accelerating this phenomenon.

Grounded in empirical data and a commitment to factual precision, this research aims to contribute substantially to the ongoing discourse on gender equality in leadership. By revisiting the Glass Ceiling, this paper endeavours to not only shed light on the existing disparities but also provide nuanced insights that can inform corporate policies and societal endeavours to dismantle barriers obstructing the equitable progression of individuals within the professional realm.

Currently, the milk production of country is 221.06 million tonnes (2021 22) and the target is 300 million tonnes by 2023-24. The livestock sector contributed nearly 5.21% of total gross value added (GVA) and 28.36% of the agriculture and allied sectors GVA. Thus, there is a huge gap between demand and supply, therefore with the requirements of better yield from the dairy animals, we need more better and advanced options. Artificial intelligence (AI) is one of such options which can be exploited in dairy industry. Artificial Intelligence can be a game-changer for the dairy farming in India and it can emerge as a tool that empowers farmers in monitoring, forecasting as well as optimizing the farm animal growth. It can predominantly change the scenario of dairy farmers by maintaining the health, physiological and physical conditions of dairy-cows. This knowledge-based technology has a huge potential and could confront the loopholes in dairy farming and thus indirectly can strengthen the dairy industry. In dairy farming AI has multiple applications like monitoring the activities of the dairy-cows, boosting the milk production and farm productivity, detection of mastitis in dairy-cows and developing the smart cow houses powered by image analysis.

AI enables the dairy farmers to determine whether the cow is ill, ready to breed or has become less productive. The AI also sends alerts to the farmer about the change in the cow’s behavior allowing human intervention where needed. Regular 24x7 monitoring of dairy animals is the key for successful dairy farming, however, traditional methods of monitoring relied on visual observation, but it was not very efficient due to the lack of time and human resources. Without AI, it would be almost impossible for the farmer to keep a watchful eye on every cow in the herd. Artificial Intelligence components of the dairy automation system process the collected data to provide insights on the heat stress, change in feeding efficiency and the estrus of the cow. Diseases like sub-clinical mastitis, one of the more common diseases in the dairy industry, cost the Indian dairy industry one billion dollars annually. Eventually, it provides new hope and open prospects for the overall quality and progress in the dairy industry through a profitable business approach in dairy farming

Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) is a closely linked cluster of genes which have codes for cell surface proteins known as  MHC molecules. These molecules have very important role in presentation of processed antigens to the T cells in initiation of an immune response as T cells recognize an antigen only when it is presented along with MHC molecule. These are highly polymorphic and are the major barrier to organ/tissue transplantation. All vertebrates have MHC. MHC differs among members of a species and are thus called alloantigens. MHC participates in the development of both humoral and cell-mediated immune responses.

A forest is a large area dominated by trees. Many definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal standing and ecological function. Although a forest is usually defined by the presence of trees, under many definitions an area completely lacking trees may still be considered a forest if it grew trees in the past, will grow trees in the future, or was legally designated as a forest regardless of vegetation type. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization, forests covered 4 billion hectares or approximately 30% of the world’s land area in 2006. Forests are the dominant terrestrial ecosystem of earth, and are distributed around the globe. Forests account for 75% of the gross primary production of the earth’s biosphere, and contain 80% of the earth’s plant biomass

Classification Of Forest

Forests have been classified in different ways. Forests can be classified on the basis of method of regeneration, age, composition, object of management, ownership, canopy density, stand density or growing stock.

Part I - Preliminary

1. Short title: These rules may be called the Seeds Rules, 1968
2. Definitions: In these rules, unless the contest otherwise requires.

Agroforestry systems are not simply systems where trees and crops or animals give useful products to the farmers, rather systems where trees and crops and/or animals interact. Interaction literally means influence or mutual or reciprocal action. So component interaction refers to the influence of one component of a system on the performance of other component as well as the system as a whole.

In agroforestry systems, trees are grown in close proximity to crops and pasture. Their performance would largely depend on their ability to share various growth resources in a given environmental situation. Various interactions take place between the woody trees and herbaceous plants (crops or pastures) which is referred to as tree-crop interface. These interactions take place through the media of soil and microclimate and may exert favourable or adverse effects on the crop. Study of interaction helps to know how the components of agroforestry utilize and share the resources of the environment, and how the growth and development of any of the components will influence the others. Interaction occurs both above and below the ground and includes a complex set of interactions relating to radiation exchange, the water balance, nutrient budget and cycling, shelter and other microclimatic modifications.

The success of an agroforestry system relies heavily on exploitation of the component interactions. In an ideal relationship, production of trees as well as crops or grasses in combination could be comparable to their sole performance. Agroforestry could be even more advantageous if the production of associated components is increased due to influence of trees. This is possible because trees are capable of improving productivity of soil in many ways. A large number of trees are known to fix nitrogen symbiotically. Nevertheless, instances of crop inhibition in association of trees are not uncommon. Such inhibitions are primarily caused by shade effect as well as competition for belowground resources such as nutrients and water. In some cases inhibitory effect may also result from allelochemicals secreted by some of the tree species.

Introduction

Poultry production is practiced at levels ranging from subsistence to large scale commercial operations. Commercial operations depend on hatcheries for the supply of day-old chicks while the subsistence farmers hatch their chicks by natural incubation. The hatchery plays a central role in the poultry production chain. Optimization of hatchery and breeder farm management can lead to improvement of the result throughout the production chain (Heier and Jarp, 2001). Generally, the success of hatchery management is monitored by the percentage of eggs set that are hatched (hatchability) and the number of chicks that are placed for grow-out (saleable chicks). 

Farmers have been growing trees for different purposes for thousands of years. Tree species that are grown to provide more than one significant function are called multipurpose trees. These functions may be productive such as producing fuelwood, timber, fibre, fodder, food, medicine, etc. and/or protective such as soil conservation, shade, shelterbelt, microclimate amelioration, land sustainability, biodiversity preservation, etc. All trees are multipurpose; some, however, are more multipurpose than others. Tree species can be multipurpose in two ways.

1. A single tree can provide more than one function. For example, Gliricidia sepium is grown as living fences that provide fuel, fodder and green manure for agricultural crops - all at the same time.
2. Trees of the same species, when managed differently, can provide different functions. For example, Leucaena leucocephala is managed so that some trees will mainly yield wood while others mainly produce leaf fodder.

Farmers can grow multipurpose trees (MPT) in various combinations with other crops, as in agroforestry, in block plantations of trees or in naturally regenerating tree farms. In certain cases, multipurpose trees are grown and managed for only one purpose. For example, Gliricida sepium is grown only to provide shade in coffee plantations. The same species may be planted in some other places and is managed differently for a very different use.

Abstract

Agroforestry is an integrated self-sustainable land use management system that is not only capable of producing food from marginal agricultural land but also capable of maintaining and improving the quality of environment. It plays a vital role in achieving integrated rural and urban development. But reliable data on number of trees and area under agroforestry is not available as methodology for estimation of even area under agroforestry is not yet standardized. In this paper, a methodology for estimation of number of trees under agroforestry using high resolution satellite data has been proposed and estimation of number of trees as well as area under agroforestry in Ludhiana district of Punjab State has been done using the proposed methodology. Land use/land cover map of the district has also been generated using ERDAS IMAGINE software. It has been observed from the accuracy assessment that the estimates of number of trees as well as area under agroforestry obtained using the proposed methodology under this study are very reliable. Therefore, the proposed methodology may be replicated for estimating number of trees as well as area under agroforestry in other parts of the country.

Keywords: Agroforestry; Estimation of number of trees, Area estimation; Remote Sensing; GIS

Reproductive problems in bovine dairy farms can significantly impact the productivity and sustainability of the cattle and buffalo industry. Challenges such as diminished conception rates, delayed age at first calving, prolonged calving intervals, and higher embryonic losses have comprehensive implications, resulting in economic setbacks and impeding genetic advancements. These intricate problems are attributed to a combination of factors encompassing deficient reproductive management strategies, inadequate nutritional provisions, suboptimal breeding methodologies, the prevalence of infectious diseases, and the impact of environmental stressors. Inadequate management of the estrus cycle and mistimed insemination practices underscore the significance of effective reproductive management. Poor nutritional support can detrimentally affect the onset of puberty, compromise the quality of oocytes and embryos, and usher in an overall decline in reproductive performance. The presence of infectious diseases not only intensifies difficulties in achieving successful conception but also amplifies the rates of embryonic as well as pregnancy loss.

Additionally, environmental stressors, particularly heat stress, can disrupt estrus patterns, impede oocyte development, and hinder embryo growth. Consequently, addressing these complex reproductive issues necessitates a comprehensive and multifaceted approach. This approach entails the implementation of sound reproductive management protocols to ensure precise monitoring of estrus cycles and timely insemination practices through proper record-keeping. Furthermore, optimizing nutritional provisions tailored to distinct reproductive stages enhances ovarian function, augments oocyte quality, and promotes healthy embryo development. Rigorous biosecurity measures, including strict quarantine practices and adherence to vaccination regimens, play a pivotal role in disease prevention and control within the farm environment. Moreover, the integration of advanced reproductive technologies, such as ultrasonography and embryo transfer, offers avenues for early pregnancy detection and facilitates selective breeding to enhance genetic progress. By amalgamating these strategies, a concerted effort can be made to enhance reproductive efficiency, safeguard herd health, and ultimately support the overall productivity and sustainability of the cattle and buffalo industries.

Proteinase inhibitors (PIs) are small proteins that are quite common in nature. They are natural, defense-related proteins often present in seeds and induced in certain plant tissues by herbivory or wounding (Koiwa et al., 1997). PIs are present in multiple forms in numerous tissues of animals and plants as well as in microorganisms. In plants they can be counted among the defensive mechanisms displayed against phytophagous insects and microorganisms. The defensive capacities of plant PIs rely on inhibition of proteases present in insect guts or secreted by microorganisms, causing a reduction in the availability of amino acids necessary for their growth and development. PIs are of common occurrence in the plant kingdom. Plant PIs (PPIs) are generally small proteins that have mainly been described as occurring in storage tissues, such as tubers and seeds, but they have also been found in the aerial parts of plants (De Leo et al., 2002). One of the important defense strategies that are found in plants to combat predators involve PIs which are in particular effective against phytophagous insects and microorganisms. The defensive capabilities of PPIs rely on inhibition of proteases present in insect guts or secreted by microorganisms, causing a reduction in the availability of amino acids necessary for their growth and development (Lawrence and Koundal, 2002).

Plant hormones (also known as phytohormones) are chemicals that regulate plant growth, which are termed ‘plant growth substances’.

Plant hormones are signal molecules produced within the plant, and occur in extremely low concentrations. Hormones regulate cellular processes in targeted cells locally and, when moved to other locations, in other locations of the plant. Hormones also determine the formation of flower, stems, leaves, the shedding of leaves, and the development and ripening of fruit. Plants, unlike animals, lack glands that produce and secrete hormones. Instead, each cell is capable of producing hormones. Plant hormones shape the plant, affecting seed growth, time of flowering, the sex of flowers, senescence of leaves, and fruits. They affect which tissues grow upward and which grow downward, leaf formation and stem growth, fruit development and ripening, plant longevity, and even plant death. Hormones are vital to plant growth, and, lacking them, plants would be mostly a mass of undifferentiated cells. So they are also known as growth factors or growth hormones..

Phytohormones are found not only in higher plants, but in algae too, showing similar functions, and in microorganisms, like fungi and bacteria, but, in this case, they play no hormonal or other immediate physiological role in the producing organism and can, thus, be regarded as secondary metabolites.

Aims and Objectives

It has become evident that in order to achieve the food production targets of the future, a major effort will be required to enhance the seed replacement rates of various crops. This would require a major increase in the production of quality seeds, in which the private sector is expected to play a major role. At the same time, private and Public Sector Seed Organisations at both Central and State levels, will be expected to adopt economic pricing policies which would seek to realise the true cost of production. The creation of a facilitative climate for growth of a competitive and localised seed industry, encouragement of import of useful germplasm, and boosting of exports are core elements of the agricultural strategy of the new millennium.

Biotechnology will be a key factor in agricultural development in the coming decades. Genetic engineering/modification techniques hold enormous promise in developing crop varieties with a higher level of tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses. A conducive atmosphere for application of frontier sciences in varietal development and for enhanced investments in research and development is a pressing requirement. At the same time, concerns relating to possible harm to human and animal health and bio-safety, as well as interests of farmers, must be addressed.

Globalization and economic liberalization have opened up new opportunities as well as challenges. The main objectives of the National Seeds Policy, therefore, are the provision of an appropriate climate for the seed industry to utilize available and prospective opportunities, safeguarding of the interests of Indian farmers and the conservation of agro-biodiversity. While unnecessary regulation needs to be dismantled, it must be ensured that gullible farmers are not exploited by unscrupulous elements. A regulatory system of a new genre is, therefore, needed, which will encompass quality assurance mechanisms coupled with facilitation of a vibrant and responsible seed industry.

India’s economic security continues to be predicated upon the agriculture sector, and the situation is not likely to change in the foreseeable future. Even now, agriculture supports 58% of the Indian population, as against about 75% at the time of independence. In the identical period, the contribution of agriculture and allied sector to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) has fallen from 61 to 13%. As of today, India supports 16.8% of world’s population on 4.2% of world’s water resources and 2.3% of global land resources. Also per caput availability of resources is about 4 to 6 times less than that of world average. This will further decrease due to increasing demographic pressure and consequent diversion of the land for non-agricultural uses. Around 51% of India’s geographical area is already under cultivation as compared to 11% of the world average. The present cropping intensity is 136% and it has been registered an increase of only 25% since independence. Further, rainfed and dry-lands area constitute approximately 65% of the total net sown area. There is also an unprecedented degradation of land (107 million ha) and groundwater resource, and also fall in the rate of growth of total factor productivity. This deceleration needs to be arrested and agricultural productivity has to be doubled to meet growing demands of the population by 2050. Efficiency-mediated improvement in productivity is the most viable option to raise production of various commodities including horticulture.

Plant biotechnology can be defined as the introduction of desirable traits into plants through plant tissue culture and genetic engineering techniques. The recombinant DNA technology is used to modify the expression of genes already present in the plants or to introduce new genes of other species with which the plant cannot be bred conventionally.

An electrocardiographic unit has a compact electrocardiograph machine, power cord, patient cable, thermal recording ECG paper roll, and conducting gel.

Electrocardiographic Unit

The Electrocardiograph is a sensitive galvanometric device that is capable of recording difference in electric potential up to 1 mV (1/1000 of a volt). The machine has a voltage meter and amplifier combined with a strip recording device (Fig.5) to provide a permanent record. Various basic features viz. running (paper) speed of the machine , sensitivity, lead selector, off/on switch, f ilter etc are displayed on the screen (Fig. 5). Electrocardiographic machine can record electrocardiogram at the paper speed of 25 or 50 mm per second as per our selection. The sensitivity switch controls amplitude of the waves. The amplitude or sensitivity can be selected as 0.5,1. or 2.

Mastitis is a consequence of interplay between the infectious agents and managerial practices. The mammary glands of cows are frequently exposed to potential pathogens, but on most of the occasion, cows get mastitis because their immune systems are not adequate to prevent infection. Mastitis is an inflammation of the mammary gland in response to injury for the purpose of destroying or neutralizing the infectious agents and to prepare the way for healing and return to normal function. The average incidence of subclinical mastitis has been found to be 49% in cows and 28% in buffaloes. Similarly, clinical mastitis is prevalent in 7% of cows and 4% buffaloes. Besides this, 17% of the cows and 8% of buffaloes have been suffering from various udder and teat lesions such as udder/teat warts, bovine ulcerative mammilitis, udder impetigo and teat chaps etc. These lesions pre-dispose the animal to mastitis and cause a great discomfort at milking and hence markedly decrease the milk yield. The economic losses due to mastitis worldwide have been estimated at $35 billion. Current annual economic losses due to mastitis in India have been estimated to be Rs. 7165.51 crore that include Rs. 4151.16 crore and Rs. 3014.35 crore due to subclinical and clinical mastitis, respectively. Mastitis causes a reduced milk production, not only at its occurrence but throughout the rest of the lactation, increases the risk of new cases of mastitis and increases the risk of culling. Besides, mastitis impairs the quality of milk and milk products. Approximately 70-80% of losses are due to subclinical mastitis. Subclinical mastitis is also important due to the fact that it is 15-40 times more prevalent than the clinical form. It usually precedes the clinical form, is of longer duration, difficult to detect and constitutes a reservoir of micro organisms that lead to infection of other animals within the herd.Besides this, presence of mastitis causative organisms and antibiotic residues in milk following therapy of mastitis poses a major threat to the consumer health. Mastitis results in increase in the somatic cell count (SCC) and bacterial load of milk. The European Union has set up a threshold of 400,0000 cells/ml of milk from healthy quarter of a cow. The high SCC in mastitis milk has lipolytic effect on fat and there is increased tendency for rancidity of milk and milk products. Also, the mastitis milk with total bacterial count of more than 100,000 cfu/ml could release hydrolytic enzymes, which spoil the milk and milk products. It has been also observed that mastitis milk inhibits the growth of starter bacteria and results in decreased cheese production.

The National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (ICAR-NBPGR) was established in 1976 in New Delhi by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR). The mandate of the Bureau was to act as a nodal institute for the acquisition and management of indigenous and exotic plant genetic resources (PGR) for agriculture and to carry out related research and human resources development for sustainable growth of agriculture. As we know our country is a mega-diverse country with 2.4% of the land area, accounting for 7.8% of the recorded species of the world spread over 45,968 (11.18% of world) species of plants and 91,212 species of animals (7.43% of the world) that were documented in its 10 bio-geographic regions. India shares four biodiversity hotspots, namely Western Ghats and Sri Lanka, the Himalayas, Indo-Burma, and Sundaland, and one third of our species of higher plants are endemic. Out of 45,968 plant species, 5150 are endemic and distributed in 141 genera under 47 families, corresponding to about 30% of the world’s recorded flora, which means 30% of the world’s recorded flora is endemic to India. The plant genetic resources are fundamental to human welfare and their effective management is a crucial for conservation of genetic variability. As of today, ICAR-National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (ICAR-NBPGR), New Delhi, India has conserved about 4.6 lakh accessions of 1900 species in its gene bank, and about 6900 accessions of intermediate species have been conserved in cryobank. The Bureau not only conserve PGR safely to meet the needs of future generations but also provides these to the nation’s crop improvement programs to sustain continued advances in agricultural productivity and stabilize production. ICAR-NBPGR is the nodal agency for import and export of all PGR for research purpose, adhering to guidelines of National Biodiversity Act, 2002.

Structure of a business or legal framework

1. Sole proprietorship: A private company is a form where an individual is the exclusive proprietor of the business. It constitutes a straightforward setup where the owner is one person who manages the everyday operations of the company. In this case, the business is not regarded as an independent entity. Therefore, earnings and debts are merged into their personal accounts, which are assessed and taxed at the individual level.

Advantages of the sole proprietorship structure include

• Complete Control: As a sole proprietor, you have the right to make all business decisions and do not have to negotiate with other partners, managers or shareholders as in other structures.

• Easier Startup: The creation of a private company does not necessitate completing forms or remitting a state fee. This can ease the procedure and render it more affordable.

• Simple tax reporting: Because a business is not legally a separate entity, your income tax return includes the expenses and income of the business. As an added bonus, you can use business losses to offset your earned income, which can result in a higher taxable income.

• Privacy: Sole proprietors do not have to file annual reports with state or federal governments. Therefore, the company is not disclosed in the same way as in other structures.

One of the major discoveries that gave birth to the field of microbiology was the development of instruments that could magnify, so that objects too small to be seen with the naked eye could be visualized. Robert Hooke in 1665, using an instrument with two sets of lenses (a crude compound microscope), was the first person to describe cells as life’s smallest structural units. In the early 1670s Anton van Leeuwenhoek used a simple magnifying lens to observe microbes he called ‘animalcules’ in rainwater, and was possibly the first person to observe microorganisms. The development of electron microscopes in the 1930s enabled magnifications of a further hundred times greater to be achieved.

A microscope can be defined as an optical instrument consisting of a lens or a combination of lenses for getting magnified images of minute objects. A simple microscope is essentially an ordinary magnifying lens held on an adjustable stand. It can give magnification up to 20 times the size of the object.