eChapters

India is bestowed with huge livestock population reared under diverse production systems and agro-climatic conditions. Livestock sector is great importance for the sustainability of rural economies and many ecosystems. The economic importance of livestock activity is reflected by the weight of the agricultural sector in the national gross domestic product. The share of livestock sector to the national GDP has increased more than 56% over the span of ten years to 6.17% in 2020-21 from 3.94% in 2010-11. The contribution of the livestock sector, mean while, to total agriculture GVA has increased to 30.87 per cent from 20 per cent during the corresponding period. The livestock sector employs about 8.8% of the population and provides livelihood to two third of rural communities in India.

India occupies first position in terms of goat population and milk production. Since ancient times goat milk has traditionally been known for its medicinal properties and has recently gained importance in human health due to its proximity to human milk for easy digestibility and it’s all round health promoting traits. The goats are also important for chevon production; the most preferred and relished meat in India. As per 20th Livestock Census, the total population of goats in the country is estimated at 148.88 million numbers. Goat milk has continued to play an important role in human nutrition in the area acknowledged as the cradle of modern civilization (Hatziminaoglou and Boyazoglu, 2004). Goat milk is having better digestibility, alkalinity, buffering capacity and certain therapeutic values in medicine and human nutrition in comparison to cow’s or human milk. Goat milk is considered the best milk for infants because of predominance of smaller fat globules causing faster lipase activity which results in easy digestibility of goat milk (Chandan et al.,1992).

Eyes Anatomy The eye has following important structures. •     Choroid is the layer containing blood vessels that lines the back of the eye and is located between the retina and the sclera. •     Ciliary body is the structure containing muscle and is located behind the iris (that assist in focusing the lens). •     Cornea is the clear outer layer at the front of the eye that transmits and focuses (i.e., sharpness or clarity) light into the eye. •     Fovea is the depression in the inner retinal surface, the photoreceptor layer of which is entirely cones specialized for maximum visual acuity (sharp vision). •     Iris is the colored part of the eye regulating the amount of light entering the eye. In bright light,

ABSTRACT

Income generating activities are considered as those initiatives that affect the economic aspects of rural youth’s lives through the use of economic tools such as credit and subsidy. If the youth in farming is not economically free and self-earning, he has to depend on others or migrate to the urban cities in search of jobs. Agriculture, self-employment and wage employment are the basic tools to fulfill the desire of economic independence. In the past, agriculture was placed on the top position as an income generation option and self-employment and wage employment to rural youth was the 2^nd and 3^rd priority respectively. Income generating activities such as dairy activities, goat and sheep rearing, poultry unit, bamboo products making, pickle making, leaf plate making, keeping powertiller, husking mill cum wheat grinding machine, tractor etc. Further, there are various self employment and wage employment opportunities through rural development programmes like Prime Minister Rojgar Yojana (PMRY), Swarnajayanthi Gram Swarojgar Yojana (SGSY), Pradhan Manthri Gram SadakYojana(PMGSY), Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP), Training of Rural Youth for Self -Employment (TRYSEM) etc. These are the best programmes especially for the upliftment of the rural youth to enhancing their income level. Some of these programmes are now helping rural youths to become more and more independent and free from economic dependence.

Introduction

Mosquito-borne diseases such as malaria, filariasis, Japaneseencephalitis, chikungunya and dengue hemorrhagic fever cause extensive morbidity and take heavy toll of life in the developing nations particularly in the tropics. Every year about 300-500 million people are estimated to be affected by malaria alone (WHO report, 2000). In India around two million cases of malaria are being reported annually although real burden is many fold higher (Kumar et al. 2007). Similarly, lymphatic filariasis caused by Wuchereria bancrofti affects about 120 million people worldwide. India contributes about 40%  to  the total global burden of filariasis and accounts for about 50% of the people at risk of infection (ICMR bulletin, 2002). Anopheles stephensi is recognized as a major vector for urban malaria in India (Kumar 1997).

Export

India is one of the largest producer of the pomegranate. Apart from India, Spain, Iran, Egypt, Peru, Israel, Pakistan, Afganisthan, Turkey and America are the countries where the crop is cultivated. World production of Pomegranate is around 10 Lakh tones out of which India’s share is 40-45 percent .At present Spain is the maximum producer and exporter of pomegranate due to high quality and low transport cost capturing most of the European market. The total demand for pomegranate in the world is around 1.5 Lakh tones, which is increasing day by day. Spain contributes 75,000 to 80,000 tones (75%)of the total demand followed by Iran 25,000 tones and India 10000 tones (5%). Thus to increase the export there is only one way to improve the quality.

Horticulture deals with the art, science, business and technology of cultivation and management of horticultural plants. The word Horticulture is derived from two Latin words viz. ‘Hortus’ (means garden) and ‘Culture’ (means growing). Horticulture is an aesthetic science that deals with cultivation of fruit, vegetable, spice, plantation, medicinal, aromatic and flower crops. There is a vast therapeutic use of horticulture wherein gardening and aroma therapy are used to deal with new age maladies like depression and various addictions.

In ancient times, huge gardening spaces to grow large number of fruits, vegetables and flowers were available and these areas were demarcated with the help of high walls. This enclosed area was referred to as garden. This led to the term garden culture. The land area is decreasing due to industrialization and population growth, at the same time, there is a drastic increase in demand for horticultural produce. To meet the increased demand for horticultural produce and to cope up with the space constraints, multitier cropping systems, vertical gardening and other intensive cultivation practices are being resorted to. Hence, horticulture may also be described as the “Practice of growing and manipulating plants in a relatively intensive manner”.

Presently, fruits, vegetables, flowers and ornamentals are grown not only within the home premises, but also in large quantities on a commercial scale. In other words, many horticultural crops throughout the world are grown primarily as business enterprises. Thus, horticulture has two aspects in general i.e., the amateur and the professional. In addition, with the establishment of horticultural experiment stations as an integral part of colleges and universities, comparatively a large amount of scientific information on the behaviour and cultivation of horticultural plants and products is freely available. This information or literature, constitutes the science of horticulture, and the application of this scientific information constitutes the “Technology of Horticulture.” Thus, present day horticulture may be defined as the science and technology of production, processing and merchandising of fruits, vegetables, flowers and ornamentals where each crop has its own science and technology. Consequently, horticulture may appear differently to different people. To a teacher, professor, research scientist, extension official and landscape architect, it is an applied science and a profession, while to a commercial producer, wholesaler, a retailer of horticultural products, or to the manufacturers or seller of horticultural products, it is a business. It is also a fascinating hobby for connoisscur.

English name : Vanilla
Botanical name : Vanilla fragrans (Salisb)
Family : Orchidaceae
Chromosome number : 2n =32
Centre of origin : Mexico
Orchid (Vanilla fragrans Salisb Syn. V. Planifolia Andrews) is an orchid belonging to the family Orchidaceae. Vanilla is cultivated primarily for its beans, which are prized for their sweet scent, rich aroma, and delightful flavour. As the most expensive spice, vanilla serves as the primary source of vanillin, a key ingredient used to flavour a variety of products such as ice cream, chocolate, beverages, cakes, custards, and other confectioneries. It is also widely utilized in the perfume industry and in its medicinal applications. Vanilla beans contain natural vanillin (1.3-3.8%), resins, fats, glucose, fructose, 26 volatile constituents, 144 additional volatile compounds, and moisture. “Vanilla sugar,” derived from these beans, is crucial in chocolate production. The curing process is essential for producing vanillin, the primary aromatic compound.

The distribution systems are designed to ensure that processed fluid milk is stored and transported under optimal conditions, maintaining its quality and freshness until it reaches consumers. An effective distribution system for processed fluid milk involves careful planning and execution to guarantee timely delivery, quality preservation, and customer satisfaction. Given that milk is a highly perishable product, it requires meticulous handling and strict temperature control. Technology plays a crucial role in preserving its integrity throughout the supply chain. The use of technology reduces human error, increase the efficiency of distribution operations, and lower operational costs by preventing idle resources through coordinated logistics for both outbound and inbound trips.
To address the specific demands of manufacturing, packaging, distribution, and transportation, integrated business process automation solutions are implemented. These solutions include following features:
• Identify and define the most efficient delivery routes, reducing transportation costs and ensuring timely delivery.
• Scheduling and monitoring of delivery routes to maintain optimal delivery speeds, and manage loading and unloading processes so as to minimize exposure to adverse conditions. Automated solutions and tools help maintain the required temperature conditions throughout the entire supply chain.
• Verify and document supplier practices to ensure that all partners in the supply chain adhere to the agreed-upon temperature standards. Store the temperature-related data to help in auditing and analysis, and continuous improvement of the cold chain process.
• Shelf life and expiration date management is a critical component in  the storage and transport of dairy products. Proper management ensures that dairy products remain safe for consumption and retain their quality throughout the distribution chain.

This chapter introduces human–wildlife conflict as a complex ecological and socioeconomic issue arising from interactions between wildlife and human communities. It examines the major drivers and patterns of conflict and considers their ecological and socioeconomic impacts. The chapter focuses particularly on the Indian context and discusses mitigation and management strategies, policy and governance, education, awareness, and community participation. It also considers future research and approaches for promoting coexistence. The chapter emphasizes integrated management strategies that address both wildlife conservation and the needs of communities living in and around forest landscapes.

3.1 Introduction

Rice is the main staple food for most of the world’s population and plays a key role to maintain food security of many countries. More than 90% of the rice production globally comes from Asia and also more than 90% of rice consumption is done in Asia (IRRI, 1997). In Asia, more than two billion people get almost 60-70 percent of their daily energy requirement from rice and its products (Yogeswari and Porpavai, 2018). As for India, since independence the country has witnessed a remarkable progress in rice production.

Introduction

The most significant commercially grown fruit crop in the country is the mango (Mangifera indica L.), which belongs to the Anacardiaceae family. It’s known as the “king of fruits.” Mango cultivars can be found in the greatest variety in India. Mango farming is thought to have begun in South East Asia. Since about 6,000 years ago, mango has been grown in south Asia.Mango is native to South Asia, from where it has been distributed worldwide to become one of the most cultivated fruits in the tropics.

The major mango-growing states are Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Bihar, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu. Andhra Pradesh rank 1st in area, whereas Uttar Pradesh rank 1st in production and productivity. Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra, West Bengal and Gujarat together contribute for about 82% of the total production in India.

India to become the second largest fruit producer in the world, after china, with a production of 102481 thousands metric tonnes of fruits from an area of 6930 thousands hectares in 2020-21.The fruit is grown in India, the total area under mango cultivation was 2317 thousand hectare with an annual production of 20386 thousand metric tonnes.(NHB 2020-21).

Mango is well adopted in tropical and sub-tropical climates but it can be grown up to 1,100 meters above sea-level. There should not be humidity, rain or frost during flowering. The temperature between 24 and 270C is ideal for its cultivation. Higher temperature during fruit development and maturity gives better quality fruits. The areas expressed frequent showers and high humidity is prone to many pests and diseases. Thus it can grow best in regions with a rainfall between 25cm and 250 cm. Regions having bright sunny days and moderate humidity during flowering is ideal for mango growing.The farmers 92.20 per cent had problems of pests in their mango trees. The most common pests were the mango seed weevil 48.10 per cent, fruit fly 36.40 per cent, trips 1.30 per cent, aphids 1.30 per cent and the most common diseases were the powdery mildew 46.80 per cent, anthracnose 18.20 per cent and scab 2.60 per cent (Gitonga,2010).

Nervous system is composed of brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves. The neuron is a basic functional unit of nervous system. Necrosis of neurons in brain is known as encephalomalacia while necrosis of neurons in spinal cord is termed as myelomalacia. If the necrosis occurs in grey matter it is known as polioencephalomalacia while necrosis of neurons in white matter is called as leukoencephalomalacia. There are three types of scavenger cells in nervous system known as microglial, oligodendroglial and astrocytes. Microglial cells surround the necrotic neurons and are known as satellite cells and the process is called as satellitosis. As the neuron dies, it is engulfed by microglial cell and this process is termed as neuronophagia. The necrosis of nerve fibers starts from myelin sheath and this change is called demyelination or Wallerian degeneration.

Introduction

Eye

Avian ocular apparatus includes eyeball, optic nerve, and accessary structures e.g., eyelids, lacrimal glands, and muscles etc. The eyeball is composed of three tunics namely the f ibrous (cornea and sclera), vascular (choroid, iris, ciliary body) and nervous tunic (retina). The histological structures of all these tunics are similar to mammals except the Bowman’s membrane (the basal lamina of corneal epithelium) is not distinct. Similar to the mammals, they also have three refractive media viz., aqueous humour, lens, and vitreous humour. The cornea does not refract light.

There are some important diseases and disease conditions of eye in poultry birds. The common aetiology of eye diseases in poultry birds has a wide range and includes heredity, nutritional deficiency, infections (microbial and parasitic) and managemental failure. Some of them are not seen often in the modern intensive rearing systems like the deficiency diseases while others are seen associated only with the intensive system housing of birds like the ammonia burns. The infectious diseases of only eyes, are not encountered in poultry birds. The diseases like the colibacillosis, pasteurellosis and Marek’s disease can affect eyes along with other body systems. Understanding of eye diseases of poultry birds requires basic knowledge of ophthalmic anatomy, concepts and terminology of eye associated pathological changes. The affected birds generally show ocular lesions and loss of condition due to starvation as they are unable to search for feed and water. Some conditions are reversible while others may be irreversible according to the extent of damage. Nutritional and managemental diseases in most cases are relatively easy to diagnose and manage, while infectious and hereditary diseases may require deeper investigation. Some diseases like endophthalmitis, eye notch syndrome and ophthalmopathy have been recorded but their causes could not be found out.

Introduction
In India, the government policy regarding the import and export of processed fruits is primarily regulated by the Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA), which requires exporters to register with them to export notified processed food items, including processed fruits, and implement various export promotion schemes to facilitate this trade; the overall goal is to boost the export of agricultural and processed food products through the Agriculture Export Policy (AEP).
1. Key features ofAgriculture Export Policy (AEP)
i. Governing body: APEDA, established under the Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority Act, 1985.
ii. Registration required: All exporters of processed fruits are required to register with APEDA to export their products.

The words “Economy” and “Ecology” have the same root. Both these words are derived from Greek ‘Oikos’ means house or house holds and both imply thrifty economical way of dealing with valuable resources. However, for some reason we seem to find these two words coming opposite each-other in many situations.

The destruction and degradation of the environment has become the greatest problem of our century. Our survival will depend on how well we are able to redefine our technologies and our relationship with nature. We therefore need a new sustainable eco-agri revolution and a country like India is in an ideal situation to give a model for that. In the new economy, good ecology will be fundamental to good business.

Abstract

The present study was conducted in Jhunjhunun district of Indian Thar desert to evaluate the soil fertility status and impact of different land uses on soil physico-chemical properties. Surface soil samples (0-30 cm depth) from rainfed crop lands, irrigated croplands, Orans (traditional grazing lands) and sand dunes were collected and analyzed for fertility. The pH and EC values of the soils ranged from 7.2- 9.7 and 0.02 – 2.5 dSm,^-1 respectively. The soil organic carbon (SOC) content in the soils varied from 0.03-0.62%, with the lowest average content (0.07%) in sand dunes, whereas average SOC under rainfed crop lands and Orans was 0.13 and 0.15%, respectively. Soils under irrigated crop lands recorded highest values for SOC (0.22%). Phosphorus deficiency was spread in the district across the land uses. However, soils under irrigated crop land showed phosphorus buildup due to carry over effect of continuous use of P fertilizers over a period of time.

One of the chief aspects of Entomology is the study of insects from the standpoint of their innumerable relations and activities affecting the interests of man. More than any other living organisms, insects have more intimate and complex relationship with man. It is well known that insects affect human interests both for good and bad. However, their injurious activities are of much greater concern to man than the beneficial aspects of their activities. Several insects are beneficial to man in several ways, both directly and indirectly and there are scores of other insects, which do not interfere with the interests of man in any way.

From the time man stepped into the domain of insects, a stifle has started between the insects and man. To meet his various demands for food, clothing, shelter and various other requirements, man cultivates various crops and raises many domesticated livestock. Unfortunately for man, insects also have started depending on these for their living. When the requirements for man and insects happen to be the same, a race is on for their survival and existence. Insects attack plants and livestock and cause extensive damage and economic loss. So, man considers such injurious insects as his enemy and to safeguard his interests tries to destroy them by various means. However, man’s supremacy and intelligence have not proved a match to the rapid propagation of insects and their various adaptations to withstand any hardship and adverse conditions. In the effort to gain an upper hand, it has not been possible for man to destroy the unwanted insects completely and the struggle is going on as a never-ending ordeal.

Nanomaterials are a field which takes a materials science-based approach to nanotechnology. It studies materials with morphological features on the nanoscale, and especially those which have special properties stemming from their nanoscale dimensions. Nanoscale is usually defined as smaller than a one tenth of a micrometer in at least one dimension, though this term is sometimes also used for materials smaller than one micrometer.

An aspect of nanotechnology is the vastly increased ratio of surface area to volume present in many nanoscale materials which makes possible new quantum mechanical effects, for example the “quantum size effect” where the electronic properties of solids are altered with great reductions in particle size. This effect does not come into play by going from macro to micro dimensions. However, it becomes pronounced when the nanometer size range is reached. A certain number of physical properties also alter with the change from macroscopic systems. Novel mechanical properties of nanomaterials are a subject of nanomechanics research. Catalytic activities also reveal new behaviour in the interaction with biomaterials.

Cowpea is a quick growing leguminous forage crop. It is usually grown mixed with cereal fodders and grasses to improve the nutritive value of the herbage. It contains 20 – 24 % crude protein, 43 - 49 % neutral detergent fibre, 34 – 37 % acid detergent fibre, 23– 25 % cellulose and 5 – 6 % hemicelluloses on dry matter basis. The digestibility of cowpea fodder is above 70%. Cowpea can be grown under partial shaded conditions. It is an excellent cover crop, which suppresses weeds and enriches the soil. Cowpea requires warm climate with good atmospheric humidity. It can be grown in kharif as well as in zaid season.

Nervous system is composed of brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves. The neuron is a basic functional unit of nervous system. Necrosis of neurons in brain is known as encephalomalacia while necrosis of neurons in spinal cord is termed as myelomalacia. If the necrosis occurs in grey matter it is known as polioencephalomalacia while necrosis of neurons in white matter is called as leukoencephalomalacia. There are three types of scavenger cells in nervous system known as microglial, oligodendroglial and astrocytes. Microglial cells surround the necrotic neurons and are known as satellite cells and the process is called as satellitosis. As the neuron dies, it is engulfed by microglial cell and this process is termed as neuronophagia. The necrosis of nerve fibers starts from myelin sheath and this change is called demyelination or Wallerian degeneration.