eChapters

An overwhelming proportion of plant material used for compounding herbal medicines and nutraceuticals is currently collected from the wild. With traditional health care systems gaining increasing popularity, the enormous amount of plant material extracted from the limited plant populations available in natural stands is a cause of justifiable alarm. The unscrupulous plunder of plant populations growing in the wild is pushing increasing number of important species to the endangered category and many to the verge of extinction. Also, unethical practices like adulteration and storage of medicinal plants under unacceptable conditions are rampant. All this is happening, when the consumer is becoming increasingly quality conscious and is demanding traceability of source material used for formulations and adherence to good practices for the entire chain of manufacturing process for herbal drugs and plant-based nutraceuticals. Clearly, solution to this problem lies in replacing the ‘collection from the wild’ paradigm to ‘production by cultivation’. An essential prerequisite for meeting this objective is a well thought out research agenda which not only tackles productivity enhancement goals for the targeted plant species but also addresses the validity of the entrenched notion among healers who use the traditional medical systems, that only material collected from the wild produces the desired results. The reason advanced in support of this argument is that phytomedicines are derived from plant populations growing in the wild under organic conditions and under their natural rhizosphere and rhizoplane. The associated soil-microbial complexes, and a variety of endophytic microorganisms, may be the initiators or modifiers of the production and expression of medicinal properties.

Fermentation in food processing typically is the conversion of carbohydrates to alcohols and carbon dioxide or organic acids using yeasts, bacteria, or a combination thereof, under anaerobic conditions.

7.1. Farm planning

Decision making process in farm business

Involves organization and management of limited resources to realize specified goals continuously.

Selecting most profitable course of action from among all possible alternatives.

For many soil borne diseases, effective and economic control methods are not available. Several soil borne pathogens have developed resistance to many fungicides. The beneficial microbes are also affected by fungicides. Many fungicides pose health hazards by polluting food and water and cause direct toxicity of heavy metals and carcinogenic risk. In the context of growing worldwide awareness of environmental pollution and development of fungicide resistant strains of pathogens, biological method of suppression of disease causing organisms have been recognized as the safest approach for plant disease management.

Biological control of plant diseases is the suppression of populations of plant pathogens by living organisms. Amongst beneficial microorganisms, isolates can be selected which are highly effective against pathogens and can be multiplied on artificial media. Application of such selected and mass produced antagonists in high densities once or several times during a growing season is called “augmentative biological control”.

22.1 Farm Planning

It refers to setting the objectives and actions to be taken in directing or controlling the organisation of farm business and it precedes all other managerial functions on the farm to achive the desired results. It is deciding in advance to the production management problems viz. what to produce, how to produce, when to produce, financial management problems viz how to borrow, how much to borrow, when to borrow, from where to borrow and marketing management problems viz, where to buy, and sell, when to buy and sell, how to buy and sell ete. Farm planning governs the survival progress and prosperity of farm organisation in a competitive and dynamic environment. It is a continuous and unending process. Farm planning is as old as farming itself but mainly it uses the farmal planning.

Introduction

NITI Policy Paper No.1/20017 reveals details of the concept and time frame as how to double the income of the farmers. The policy paper emphasizes in increase in agriculture productivity, improvement in total factor productivity, diversification towards high value crop, and increase in crop intensity, increasing terms of trade for farmers and shifting cultivators to non-farm and subsidiary activities. The well thought and planned program for doubling the income of the farmers reflecting dream or reality. We have farmers of different types like, small. Marginal and large farmers, resource rich and resource poor farmers, farmers of irrigated and non-irrigated zones, tribal and non-tribal farmers , trained and untrained farmers and progressive and non-progressive farmers. The farmers and their economic structure are quite different from place to place even within district. NSSO data on consumption expenditure survey (2011-12) reveal that more than one-fifth of households with self employment in agriculture and their principal occupation were having income less the poverty line.

Milk Production Scenario

Milk is primary source of protein and lactoseDairy farming is considered to be a whole environment of reciprocal relations and dependency reproduction and protection of social values. In worldwise dairy cows count up to 264 millions producing 600 million tones of milk every year. The global average for milk production is approximately 2200 litters/cow. Cattle population of world is 1009.69 millions heads (FAO, 2019) and highest milk producing countries are India, USA, China, Pakistan and Brazil. In case of consumption of milk India tops in the world followed by EU, USA and China. The per capita consumption of milk is highest in the country of Belarus followed by Ukraine and New Zealand. India is ranked 7th in the world in this respect. In India total cattle population is 306.70 millions. The state of Odisha constitutes 1.19% of the total cattle population of India. The level of milk production of India is reported to be 198.2 metric million tones. The per capita availability of milk in India is 427 gms/day (2021) and highest being in Punjab followed by Rajasthan. In case of Odisha the per capita milk availability is 143 gms and in milk production the district Cuttack top the list followed by Ganjam and Jagatsinghpur.

In natural farming-based aquaculture, feed management emphasizes sustainable practices that utilize naturally occurring food sources along with lowcost supplements. This method reduces dependency on commercial feeds and chemical inputs, aligning with eco-friendly farming principles and supporting aquatic biodiversity. Fish raised in natural farming systems primarily feed on natural organisms such as plankton, algae, and detritus. These develop in ponds fertilized with organic inputs like cow dung and compost, which help create a self-sustaining aquatic ecosystem. Fish thrive by feeding through the natural food chain, minimizing the need for external inputs.
Supplementary feeding includes locally sourced plant materials such as azolla, duckweed, water hyacinth, and aquatic weeds that are rich in nutrients. Farmers also use kitchen waste, crop residues, and agricultural byproducts like rice bran and wheat bran to enhance nutritional value.
Fermented feed mixtures—made using bran, cow urine, and microbial solutions—are applied to improve digestion and nutrient uptake. These probiotic feeds support fish health and improve immunity without resorting to synthetic additives. Regular pond maintenance, including partial water renewal and organic fertilization, supports the continuous generation of natural feed organisms. This ensures a balanced and productive environment for fish rearing.
Adopting such natural feed strategies leads to healthier fish, reduced environmental impact, and lower input costs. It also complements integrated farming systems, contributing to farm sustainability and diversified income opportunities.

Introduction
The Directorate of Extension Education, came into existence during 1967 under Odisha University of Agriculture and Technology. This directorate is engaged with various projects viz: University Extension Block Programme, Distance Education, Digital Extension, Information wing, Gender resource center, Educational Museum besides managing 31 KVKs in 28 districts of Odisha except Cuttack and Khordha district in which University Extension Block Programme and Farmers FIRST program is in operational. This directorate adopted several innovative extension approaches which made the OUAT KVKs unique in operational modalities and effective in delivering for the development of farming community in Odisha, some of the innovative approaches are: Development of KVK Action Plan, CoE on FPOs, R-E Linkage and Krushi Samrudhi helpline.
Development Process of Action Plan
Krishi Vigyan Kendras work as a knowledge resource center in agriculture and allied field for the district (Singh et al., 2012) where in, production and supply of critical technological products, both tangible and intangible is the major component other than having scientifically maintained demonstration units, crop cafeteria etc. Development of complete feasible action plan of KVKs requires sincere efforts in identifying the real problems on one hand and sourcing the frontline technologies on the other. The logical fitment of suitable technological options for testing, in addressing situation specific problems are also an important activity requiring our understanding of the major farming systems in the AES, micro-farming situations of different crops & commodities and our scientific orientation. For this OUAT adopts a uniform action planning process since last few years which involves different activities.
1. Identifying the problems
2. Prioritizing the problems
3. Analyzing the problems and finding root cause(s) of the prioritized problems.
4. Sourcing alternative technologies and listing possible solutions nearer to hit the root cause and address the problems.
5. Taking into consideration the follow up activities require to be undertaken for previous year OFTs and FLDs
6. Planning interventions including those for other extension activities, production of critical inputs etc.
7. Consolidation of interventions and finalization of action plan with respect to OFT, FLD, Capacity building, other extension activities or combination of these.

Abstract

Brinjal being native vegetable crop of India possesses rich variability. It is one of the important crops for arid region with limited irrigation water. The large variability in genetic resources available in this crop, provide scope for development of varieties with desirable characteristics such as earliness, high fruit quality and yield, tolerance to high temperature and fruit and shoot borer (FSB).

Herbicides are applied to the soil in hopes of obtaining season-long weed control. It is desirable for the chemicals to control weeds during the season of application, but they should not remain long enough to affect subsequent crop growth.

    1.    Selection of herbicides: The type of herbicide and the method of application can influence the extent of the residual carryover. Herbicides differ in their physical and chemical properties such as water solubility, volatility and susceptibility to breakdown by sunlight, and microbes. When applied at recommended rates, most herbicides breakdown within a few days or weeks after application and impose no restrictions on cropping options in the next year. Some herbicides however do not degrade quickly and can persist in the soil for weeks, months or years following application. The use of residual herbicides can be beneficial as the residues prevent growth of sensitive weed species throughout the season. These residues however can restrict the crops that can be grown in rotation. Some herbicides can remain active in the soil for weeks, months or years. This can be an advantage as it ensures good long term weed control. However, if the herbicide stays in the soil longer than intended, it may damage sensitive crop or pasture species sown in subsequent years. For example, chlorsulfuron is used in wheat (Triticum sp) and barley (Hordeum vulgore), but can remain active in the soil for several years and damage legumes and oilseeds.

It was in 1968 that the term Green Revolution was coined by Dr. William Gaud of USA to describe advances in agriculture arising from productivity improvement. Even in 1968, I concluded that if farm ecology and economics go wrong, nothing else will go right in agriculture.  I expressed my views in the following words in my lecture at the Indian Science Congress Session held at Varanasi in January 1968:

Exploitive agriculture offers great dangers if carried out with only an immediate profit or production motive. The emerging exploitive farming community in India should become aware of this. Intensive cultivation of land without conservation of soil fertility and soil structure would lead, ultimately, to the springing up of deserts. Irrigation without arrangements for drainage would result in soils getting alkaline or saline. Indiscriminate use of pesticides, fungicides and herbicides could cause adverse changes in biological balance as well as lead to an increase in the incidence of cancer and other diseases, through the toxic residues present in the grains or other edible parts. Unscientific tapping of underground water will lead to the rapid exhaustion of this wonderful capital resource left to us through ages of natural farming.

Pot mixture is the media, used in the pots for propagation of nursery plants. It is the combination of different materials in a particular proportion to create better environment for rooting, growth and development of plants.

The most commonly used ingredients to make potting mixture areas follows

In India the problems of protein energy malnutrition, anemia, and vitamin A deficiency are more prevalent among children and adolescents (Udayasree, Manjula, & Sowjanya, 2013). To overcome these problems, the need of nutritional compositions rich foods came into existence. One of such foods which constitute the most significant attention of nutrients is “Spirulina”. Spirulina is a common name for supplements derived mainly from two Cyanobacteria species, i.e. Arthrospira maxima and Arthrosepira platensis, which are human and animal.

Bakery products have a long history of development. The process for the preparation of foods via dry heat treatments in an oven is defined as baking. Baking of foods can also be achieved by using hot ashes or on hot stones. Bakery products include biscuits, bread, cookies, rolls, cakes, pasteries, pies, rolls, doughnuts, etc. These products are mainly composed of raw materials such as wheat flour, water, yeast, salt, and various other ingredients. Bakery foods provide various nutrients that are beneficial for human health. Among bakery products, bread,biscuits and cakes are some of the popularly consumed items.

On-farm feed formulation involves preparing nutritionally balanced rations for livestock using locally available ingredients, while keeping in mind the animals’ dietary needs and the cost-effectiveness of components. This can be done either manually or through mathematical methods such as linear programming. Key elements of the process include understanding animal nutrient requirements, the nutritional profile of ingredients, and using tools like Pearson’s square for precise formulation.
This practice is a core aspect of natural feed management, enabling farmers to create customized feed mixes with natural, locally sourced inputs. It significantly reduces reliance on commercial feeds, lowers production costs, and promotes principles of ecological balance and self-reliance integral to natural farming systems. The aim is to meet the dietary needs of various livestock species—such as cattle, buffaloes, goats, poultry, and fish—during different life stages like growth, lactation, reproduction, and maintenance, using only natural, chemical-free components.
Frequently used natural ingredients include the folloning:
• Cereal Grains: Maize, sorghum, pearl millet, rice bran (as energy providers)
• Oilseed Cakes: Groundnut, mustard, sesame (for protein)
• Pulse Residues: Broken pulses and husks (rich in digestible protein)
• Green Forages: Moringa, lucerne, subabul, cowpea (sources of vitamins and minerals)
• Minerals: Rock salt, lime powder, ash, crushed bones or eggshells
• Natural Additives: Neem leaves, garlic, turmeric, and fenugreek (for health and digestion)
Common techniques in feed Formulation are as bollows:
• Mixing ingredients manually in proportions suited to the animal’s requirements
• Enhancing digestion and microbial activity using Jeevamrit or other fermented inputs

8.1 Introduction
The increasing rate of waste generation due to consumption patterns has emerged as a significant environmental management challenge. The valorization of this waste hold great potential in production of bio-based products, provided they meet the multi-criteria of environmental sustainability and economic viability (Dragone et al., 2020). Within this framework, the advancement of biorefineries is considered to be a valuable strategy. These transform lignocellulosic biomass to valuable bio-based products including biofuels and biobased chemicals which promote circular economy (Mariana et al., 2021). The incorporation of biorefineries into the market value chain necessitates the establishment of production framework which aims high recovery and generation of value-added products from biomass (Meramo- Hurtado and González-Delgado, 2019). However, the upscaling of these biorefineries faces various challenges such as process efficiency and technological advancement. Additionally, the largescale operation of biorefineries requires consistent and stable biomass supply. Addressing these challenges require technological advancements and policy framework (Makepa and Chihobo, 2024). These could ensure the economic viability and profitability of biorefineries which is essential for their successful implementation in long-term sustainability goals (Arias et al., 2023). In this context, the early-stage evaluation comprises production capacity, market demand, technological limitations and environmental impact.
8.2 Challenges in Upscaling of Biorefineries
For fulfillment of the global demand for bio-based products it is important to upscale biorefineries from laboratory to industrial scale. Biorefineries are closely aligned with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), as several SDGs emphasize the efficient and circular utilization of resources to promote sustainability. Additionally, SDSs promotes adoption of practices which encourage climate change mitigation, economic growth, societal well-being and advancements in research and innovations (Lange et al., 2021). However, the establishment of biorefineries faces various technical challenges similar to those encountered in conventional refinery plants. These challenges arise primarily due to the large volume of biomass required for processing to achieve industrial scale production of bioproducts (Ahmed et al., 2023).

Abstract

Endophytes are microorganisms  that live inside the living plant tissues for at least part of their life without causing any apparent disease symptoms in the host. In general  they  can be divided into two main types namely, obligate and facultative endophytes. Facultative endophytes are capable to survive in the soil, on the plant surface, inside the plants as well as on artificial nutrients and can be cultured away from their host. Endophytes which inhabit inside plant tissues throughout their lifespan are called as obligate endophytes. Natural products produced by endophytic microbes are found to be antimicrobial, antiviral, anticancer, antioxidants, antidiabetic and immunosuppressant. Therefore, endophytes form an untapped source of novel natural compounds for application in agriculture, medicine and industry.

Abstract

Field experiments were conducted on integrated nutrient management in clitoria at Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Regional Research Station, Kukma-Bhuj, during 2009 and 2010 with four levels of nitrogen (0, 30, 60 and 90 kg ha^–1) and phosphorus (0, 40, 80 and 120 kg ha^–1). In another field experiment, response of clitoria to bio-fertilisers (rhizobium, phosphorus solubilising microbes (PSM) and plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) was assessed. Other experiments on standardising micronutrient application, seed rate, spacing and intercropping with grasses were also conducted.

Modes of Culture 

Callus is a mass of undifferentiated plant tissues formed from plant cells or tissue cuttings when grown in culture. Tissues and cells of plant cultured in a liquid medium aerated by agitation grow as suspension of single cells and cell clumps. For growth, the cells require to divide, whereas, the cells breaking up from explant are mature, nondividing. Hence, the differentiated tissue undergoes modifications to become meristematic. This phenomenon of a mature cell reverting back to meristematic state to form undifferentiated callus tissue is called dedifferentiation.

Wood apple (Feronia limonia (L.) Swingle) is also called kainth, elephant apple, monkey fruit, curd fruit, kath bel and other dialectal names in India. It is drought hardy, medium to tall sized, under utilized fruit tree. In Malaya, it is gelinggi or belinggi, in Thailand, Ma-khwit, in Cambodia, Kromsang and in Laos, Ma-fit. In French, it is pomm-d-elephant, pomm de bois, or citron des mois (Morton and Miami, 1987). It is one of the most highly valued fruit plant grown in drier region of the country. Its plants are deciduous, glabrous, tree with thorny branches. Limited work has been done on its post harvest utilization.

The wood apple is native to India and common in the wild form in dry plains of India and Sri Lanka. It is also found growing throughout South East Asia, in Northern Malaya and on Penang Island. In India, the fruit was traditionally a “Poor man’s food” until processing techniques were developed in the mid-1950’s. It occurs, wild or cultivated, up to an elevation of 1500 ft, in Western Himalayas, but more common in the Deccan; Thane and Chandrapur districts of Maharashtra. It is also reported to occur in parts of Hazaribagh, Palamau and Chota Nagpur in Jharkhand, in forest of Vidhyan hills of Uttar Pradesh and Chattishgarh. It is often cultivated on borders of fields and as a roadside tree near villages and sometimes planted in the orchards. It is grown in the states of Odisha, Karnataka, M.P., A. P.  and Tamil Nadu.