eChapters

Methylene-cyclo-propyl-glycine (MCPG), is a cyclopropyl derivative, grouped into the amino acids that have been isolated from the higher plants (Fowden, 1960). MCPG was identified to be closely related to two other cyclopropyl derivatives (Fig. 1), 1-aminocyclopropane – 1 – carboxylic acid from Vacciniumvitis-idaea and perry pears (Vahatalo and Viertanen, 1957; Burroughs, 1957) and â- methylenecyclopropyl alanine (MCPA or Hypoglycin A) from Blighia sapida (Hassall and Rayle, 1955; Anderson et al., 1958; Ellington, Hassall and Plimmer, 1958).

Rusts

The following three rusts are known to occur on barley

1. Stem black rust: Puccinia graminis tritici f. sp. tritici
2. Leaf rust: Puccinia striiformis
3. Leaf rust: Puccinia hordei

Of these, the first two are described under wheat and the disease symptoms are identical. These two rusts occur commonly on barley and cause severe damage in certain years.

In 1850, Bacillus anthracis was first reported by three individuals in two different countries i.e. Delafond and Davaine in France, and Pollender in Germany. They could not establish the relationship of the bacterium with the infection. Absolute proof of the anthrax etiology as B. anthracis was established by Robert Koch during 1876-77. The name Bacillus anthracis was first coined by Cohn (1875) and the disease ‘anthrax’ was first named by Hippocrates (5th century B.C.). In Greek language meaning of ‘anthrax’ is ‘coal’ referring to the black coloured skin or blood in affected animals.

The seven basic tools of quality control are practical graphical techniques used to identify, analyse and resolve manufacturing problems systematically. Associated with Japanese quality expert Kaoru Ishikawa, they can be applied by employees at different organizational levels. In textile and apparel production, these tools support defect tracking, process control, waste reduction and buyer compliance. They consist of the cause-and-effect or fishbone diagram, check sheet, control chart, histogram, Pareto chart, scatter diagram and flow chart. Together, they help collect and organize information, reveal patterns, identify major sources of defects, investigate relationships between variables, map processes and determine root causes, thereby supporting evidence-based corrective action and continual improvement.

Background

Context

The information and knowledge system in virtually all sectors and access during the Soviet period was strictly state controlled and was essentially designed to meet the requirements of centralized planning. Very little information sourcing, message development, media packaging took place at the local level. Requirements for meeting agricultural production quotas were channeled to Moscow where information packages and norms, based on a central assessment of local needs were developed and transmitted from the center directly to the state and collective farms. The information was disseminated primarily via dense print publications, radio, TV, public campaigns, exhibitions and fairs, and to some extent through a computer network to areas with functioning telecommunication systems. The types of information and knowledge which the state and collective farms, private farmers, kitchen gardeners, agro-processing industries, input suppliers, marketing institutions and others engaged in agriculture could obtain were restricted and opportunities for exchange with the rest of the world were extremely limited and tightly controlled. There were very few avenues for cross checking the information received. In-house, well trained technical specialists addressed a variety of crop and livestock related problems and served as the main providers of knowledge. This was supplemented by research and field applications through a very large network of a variety of agricultural research institutes and experiment stations. Most of the research results were introduced through directives. Linkages between education, research, extension and end-users were weak and in some areas non-existent. However, the importance placed on education and training of all Soviet citizens resulted in a highly literate population to serve the needs of a socialistic economy. The centralized information and knowledge system was primarily aimed at meeting production targets in the plan with little or no importance placed on economic or environmental sustainability of farming systems and development of agro-industries.

Walnut (Juglans regia L.) is commonly known as ‘Akhrot’ in India. Internationally, walnut is known as English walnut or Persian walnut. It is an important nut grown in temperate regions of the world. It is cultivated for nut and wood in the northern hemisphere (Europe, Asia, and North America) and the Southern hemisphere (Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and South America). Walnut kernel is rich source of proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals and polyphenols. Inclusion of walnuts in human diet has positive effect on heart, skin and circulatory system. Wood of walnut is used for making quality furniture, interior joinery constructions,music instruments, carving, sport items, gun stocks and fore-end, and producing highly figured veneers, usually from burrs, which are used for cabinet-making and decorative panels

Introduction

India’s policy in agriculture sector began in 1950 with a conscious effort to meet out the food needs of Indian population in view of famines but later on shifted to develop the agriculture education and research system for enhancing the productivity of staple crops and develop competent human resource to build skilled man power to strengthen agriculture and solve the problem of food & nutritional security at the nation level (1960,s to 1990,s) to the solution of global problems in agriculture through global solutions (2000,s onward) by forging the regional and global international corporation at different levels.

The closing years of the second decade of 21st century brought one of the most remarkable transitions in the international cooperation for strengthening the agriculture research and education in the history of agriculture in India. In most of the world the transition from a resource-based to a science-based system of agriculture is occurring within a single century.

Science, Technology and Skill Development in 21st Century

In the twenty first century, science and technology are viewed as the drivers of Indian economic growth; and agricultural R&D is expected to play a significant role in the process. Agriculture research and development is being affected by research and development at international level.

Ecology of a place is influenced by a number of biotic and abiotic factors. An agroecological zone is broadly homogeneous in climatic and edaphic factors, but not necessarily contiguous, where a specific crop exhibits roughly the same biological expression. On the other hand, the characteristics of an agroecological zone influence the crops and cropping patterns of the zone. Thus, there are considerable variations in the types and management practices of agroforestry systems being followed in different agroecological zones.

AGROFORESTRY FOR HUMID AND SUBHUMID TROPICS

Humid and subhumid tropical regions have much variation in biological, social and economic parameters. The characteristics of humid tropics include high mean annual rainfall of more than 1500 mm, dry season of less than four months in a year and mean annual temperature of more than 22°C. Rainfall usually exceeds the evapotranspiration. However, demographic pressure has caused excessive deforestation and overgrazing which developed soil related problems like low soil fertility, low organic matter, high acidity and high rainfall erosivity. The agroforestry practices designed for this region should aim for improved fallows, soil fertility improvement and conservation, food production, etc. Thus, the common agroforestry systems in this zone are taungya, homegardens, alley cropping, plantation-crop combination, windbreaks, silvipastoral systems and various intercropping systems. Shifting cultivation is a common practice in tropics which should be discouraged as it causes environmental degradation and ecological imbalance, soil erosion and soil nutrient loss.

Crop growth is influenced by internal factors and external factors. Internal factors are controlled by the genes and hereditary. External factors are climate, edaphic, biotic, physiographic and anthropic.

Genetic Factors

Genetic factors are controlled by the genes. Plant height, yield, size and color of the grains or fruit etc. The productivity and quality of the crop can be improved by breeding through conventional methods or by biotechnological approaches.

Environmental factors Climate

Precipitation occurs in the form of rainfall, snow, hail and fog.

Fog: Consists of water droplets so small that their fall velocity is negligible. Fog particles contact vegetation and may adhere, coalesce with other droplets and eventually form a drop which is large enough to fall to ground.

Multiple cropping includes both inter and sequential cropping systems and here the main objective is to utilize the available resources effectively in a given environment. Number of indices are available for assessing land use and the yield advantage of crop mixtures compared to pure stands. These indices not only reflect the difference in criteria used to appraise advantages often encompassing aspects of quality or values as well as yield, but also reflects the different reasons for which an assessment is made.

1. Rotational intensity (RI): Crops are grown in a recurring sequence on the same piece of land with sufficient diversity and intensity. Crop rotations to control erosion/ to improve or maintain soil fertility and to manage weeds, insects and disease. Lower values of rotational intensity indicate mono cropping and higher values of rotational intensity indicates more rotation.

understanding, artistic expression, and engineering principles. Whether intended a a modest home feature or a grand commercial centerpiece, the setup of an aquarium requires detailed planning, suitable material selection, and adherence to sequential procedures. A well-executed aquarium setup not only enhances interior aesthetics but also ensures a safe and thriving environment for aquatic
organisms.
Setting up an aquarium involves much more than simply placing water and fish in a tank. It encompasses a range of critical stages, including selecting an appropriate site, installing the tank, layering substrates, arranging filtration systems, conditioning the water, aquascaping, and gradually introducing fish or plants. Each of these steps is vital in creating a self-sustaining aquatic ecosystem where fish, flora, and helpful microorganisms interact in balance.
Many beginners may underestimate the importance of tank cycling, species compatibility, or water parameter regulation—each essential for long-term aquarium health. Similarly, elements such as lighting, aeration, decorative items, and filter systems must be selected based on the intended aquarium type—be it freshwater, marine, planted, or specialized.
This section offers a step-by-step guide to the aquarium construction and setup process, emphasizing key practices for achieving both functional stability and visual appeal. Whether for leisure, education, or commercial use, proper setup is fundamental to the success and sustainability of any aquarium.

Abstract

The milk from non-bovine species is gaining considerable attention mainly due to the fact that it is consumed by sensitive consumers (infants and elderly). Donkey milk possesses various health benefits, namely, anti-microbial activity, immunomodulation, hypoallergenicity, prevention of cardiovascular diseases which are elaborated in details here. Similarity in nutrition profile among donkey and human milk is discussed in detail. The donkey milk’s yield, its milking technique, effect of lactation on chemical composition and the microbial aspect is also described. As, availability of donkey milk is limited, therefore its processing becomes essential for its usage over a long period of time. Preparation of various donkey milk products like yoghurt, ice cream and cheese are also described here.

• What is a Neural Network?
• How does an Artificial Neural Network (ANN) work?
• Characteristics of Neural Networks 
• Architectures of Artificial Neural Networks
• Learning Process
• Classification of Learning Algorithms
• Artificial Neural Networks in Agriculture -Intelligent Agent 
• Classes of Intelligent Agents
• Characteristic of Intelligent Agents

INTRODUCTION
The engine of a tractor is often referred to as its heart, as it drives the machine’s ability to carry out essential heavy-duty tasks in farming. As technology progresses and environmental sustainability becomes a key focus, it is increasingly important for Indian farmers in 2025 to understand the workings of tractor engines. This article aims to simplify the intricacies of tractor engines by covering their types, key specifications, performance features, maintenance, and recent innovations.
Tractors typically use diesel engines, which generate mechanical power through the compression and combustion of fuel. These engines are designed with a complex structure that ensures high power output and durability, which are vital qualities for the demanding work tractors are used for. To effectively meet these needs, tractor engines must be both powerful and built to last. These engines function based on the principles of compression and combustion of fuel. Here is a comprehensive analysis of their attributes and significance:
• High force: Tractor engines must produce significant mechanical force to execute diverse agricultural chores such as plowing, tilling, transporting, and other heavy-duty operations. Diesel engines are especially appropriate for this application due to their capacity to generate greater torque at reduced speeds, which is crucial for managing substantial loads.
• Durability: Tractors are frequently employed in severe locations, operating for extended periods under challenging conditions. Diesel engines are designed to endure the demands of continuous operation, making them preferred for agricultural machines. Their durable construction guarantees enduring reliability and longevity.
• Compression and Combustion: Diesel engines operate by compressing air within the engine cylinder. Upon the injection of fuel into this highly

• Introduction
• Features of Genetic Algorithm 
• Steps in Executing the Genetic Algorithm
• Applications of Genetic Algorithm
• Artificial Ant Problem

Water conservation and efficient irrigation are key components of natural farming in India, especially in light of challenges like erratic rainfall, declining groundwater, and unsustainable water practices. Natural farming minimizes the use of external inputs, including water, and promotes ecological balance. Traditional knowledge, combined with sustainable farming principles, helps farmers use water wisely while preserving soil moisture and improving its waterholding capacity.
A primary focus in natural farming is maintaining soil health, which directly influences its ability to retain water. Organic matter from cow-based inputs such as Jeevamrutha and compost enhances soil texture and porosity, enabling better
water absorption. This results in less frequent irrigation needs, allowing crops to grow even with limited water. Mulching is widely used in this approach. Covering the soil with organic materials like straw or crop residue helps reduce evaporation, moderate soil temperature, prevent weeds, and preserve moisture. This is particularly effective in dry areas or seasons with low rainfall.
Rainwater harvesting is another vital aspect. Farmers are encouraged to build farm ponds, bunds, and trenches to capture and store rainwater. These methods help recharge groundwater and provide a backup during dry periods, reducing drought vulnerability. Natural farming discourages water-intensive methods like flood irrigation. Instead, it promotes efficient techniques like drip irrigation, which targets water delivery to plant roots, and pitcher irrigation, where buried clay pots gradually release water—both minimizing waste.

Providing appropriate nutrition is vital for ensuring the overall well-being, growth, vibrant coloration, and reproductive success of aquarium fish. Feeding isn’t merely a daily habit—it’s a critical biological responsibility that requires an understanding of each species’ dietary preferences, feeding habits, and digestive capabilities.
Fish are generally classified as herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, or detritivores, with each type requiring specific nutritional sources. Commercially available foods come in multiple forms, including flakes, pellets, wafers, granules, and options like frozen or live items such as brine shrimp, daphnia, and bloodworms. These formulated diets typically meet the nutritional needs of most fish, but additional supplements can improve growth and support breeding efforts.
It’s important to regulate how much and how often fish are fed. Overfeeding can result in excess waste, degraded water quality, and increased disease risk, while underfeeding may inhibit growth and compromise immune function. Generally, feeding fish once or twice daily with only what they can eat in 2–3 minutes is sufficient.
Special care should be taken when feeding fry, breeding fish, bottom feeders, or sensitive species. Additives like vitamins, probiotics, and natural pigments such as spirulina and carotenoids can enhance health and appearance. Feeding time also provides a chance to monitor fish behavior—eagerness to eat usually reflects good health, while disinterest may be an early sign of illness or stress.

The general recommendation for intake of fruits and vegetables is at least 400 g per person as recommended by World Health Organization (WHO), five servings of 80 g per day or about 146 kg per person per annum. For vegetables, the recommended intake requirement is at least 300 g per day per individual. This 300 g requirement must include 50 g leafy vegetables, 50 g roots and tubers and 200 g other vegetables (Kapur, 2016). Current annual vegetable production including potato, based on recent three years (2015-16, 2016-17, 2017-18) average is around 177 million tons from 10 million ha giving a productivity of 17.7 ton/ha. With this average and stagnating production and assuming Indian population at 133 CR (1.33 billion) and 25% postharvest losses, per capita per day availability of vegetables comes to 273 g leaving a gap of 27 g between the recommended dose and the availability of vegetables per head per day in India. By 2050, the projected population of India is 1.5 billion and to meet the requirement of this population, vegetable production will have be 220 million tons, of course making allowance of 25% post-harvest losses. Considering all kind of constraints on the available land area of vegetables, the vegetable area will be around 10 million ha and consequently, major gain of production will have to come from productivity increase from current level of about 18 tons/ha to 22 tons/ha and this seems to be a gigantic task as during last several years, the productivity of vegetables in India has been between 17 and 18 tons/ha, an indication that it has reached to a plateau. This situation calls for fall massive interventions on technological fronts in terms of innovative products with focus on better hybrids with higher yields, and resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses deploying precision breeding technologies using more of marker assisted breeding, genomics and gene editing tools and delivering high quality seeds to the farmers with assurance of high performance. This chapter looks into the present seed scenario and the emerging trends with respect to new seeds and new technologies and examines the need to facilitate rules, regulations and IPR environment for more investment in vegetable research and development and quality seed production and distribution. Improved seed with shift towards hybrid seed will be the key driver to increase vegetable production and productivity in India.

The fruits and vegetables are highly perishable in nature. The losses in harvested fruits and vegetables start immediately after harvesting and the resulting spoilage caused by biochemical changes (enzymatic) and activity of microorganisms such as bacteria, moulds and yeast. The losses caused by the microorganism in fruits and vegetables products can be prevented by controlling or destroying these organisms in order to preserve fruits and vegetables by processing and preservation means. The processing and preservation is one of the most important activities among various types of activities of Horticultural Science.

Processing: The processing can be defined as an activity, which is performed to maintain or improve the quality or to change the form or characteristics of the product. Processing operations are undertaken to add value to horticultural produce after their production. The main purpose of processing is to minimize the qualitative and quantitative deterioration of produce after harvest.

Preservation: Preservation can be defined as the science which deals with the methods of prevention of decay or spoilage of produce and allow it to be stored in a fit condition for future use.

Fruits and vegetables can be preserved for short and long term. For short term preservation can be achieved by proper handling of produce and low temperature storage. Long term preservation can be achieved by canning, drying and dehydration, fermentation and by using chemical preservatives.