eChapters

The women is the backbone of agricultural workforce and are a vital part of Indian economy. Over the years, there is a gradual realization of the key role of women in agricultural development and their contribution in the field of agriculture, food security, horticulture, dairy, nutrition, sericulture, fisheries, and other allied sectors. Women form the backbone of agriculture, in India, Comprising the majority of agricultural laborers, women have been putting labour not only in terms of physical output but also in terms of quality and efficiency. With various targeted efforts, her enlightenment will change the face of rural India.

Women make essential contributions to the agricultural and rural economies in all developing countries. Their roles vary considerably between and within regions and are changing rapidly in many parts of the world

Vermicompost is a nutrient-rich, microbiologically-active organic amendment that results from the interaction between earthworms and microorganisms during the breakdown of organic matter. It is a stabilised, finely divided peat-like material with a low C:N ratio, high porosity and high water-holding capacity, in which, most nutrients are present in forms that are readily taken up by plants. Earthworms act as mechanical blenders, and by fragmenting the organic matter, they modify its physical and chemical status by gradually reducing the ratio of C:N and increasing the surface area exposed to microorganisms, thus making it much more favourable for microbial activity and further decomposition.

Introduction
• Overview of the development of the musculoskeletal system, including bones, cartilage, joints, and muscle types within skeletal and cardiac systems.
Development of the Musculoskeletal System
Mesoderm Contributions
• Mesodermal Derivatives
• Gives rise to skeletal muscle, skin dermis, endochondral bones, and joints.
• Notochord and Somite Formation
• The notochord induces the paraxial mesoderm to form somites, with somitomeres developing rostrally to the notochord in the head)
• Somite Differentiation
• Each somite differentiates into three regions:
• Sclerotome (medial): Forms most of the axial skeleton (vertebrae, ribs, base of the skull).
• Dermatome (lateral): Migrates to form the dermis of the skin.
• Myotome (middle): Migrates to form skeletal muscles. Individual adult muscles arise from the merger of adjacent myotomes.
Muscle Development
• Origins of Muscle Tissue:
• All skeletal muscle derives from paraxial mesoderm forming somites and somitomeres, with the exception of iris musculature (derived from optic cup ectoderm).
• Cardiac and smooth muscles originate from splanchnic mesoderm.

This chapter introduces the biological structure and formation of the hen egg. It examines the shell, cuticle, shell membranes, albumen, yolk, vitelline membrane, chalazae and germinal disc and explains the functions of each component. The chapter also describes the reproductive system of the laying hen, oogenesis and the sequence and timing of egg formation within the oviduct. Comparative egg structures of other poultry species and shell pigmentation are discussed, along with shell ultrastructure and quantitative composition.

Long used as beasts of burden, animals in India are still regarded today as little more than commodities rather than sentient beings who feel pain, stress, exhaustion and depression. Low literacy rates and the tendency to follow traditional practices and cultural traditions have left India surely lacking in the area of animal welfare. India holds the majority of the world’s working animal population. Animals that are forced to work in India include bullocks, horses, ponies, mules, donkeys, camels, elephants and dogs. Despite a proud heritage and a culture rooted in tolerance and compassion, animal welfare is largely ignored by Indian society, leading to extreme animal suffering. Our villages and to a great extent, the urban population still allow working animals to be mercilessly exploited in fields, on the streets, in brick kilns, on battlefields, on playgrounds and in timber areas – all in the name of agriculture, entertainment, security and any number of other “justified” pursuits.

ABSTRACT

Bangladesh is a land of rivers, wet lands and tributaries across her deltaic plains in which aquaculture is a potential arena to meet dietary needs of protein. The main objective of this study was to bring out the dominating factors on adoption of modern aquaculture technologies by the fish farmers. The study was conducted in Kahaloo and Sherpurupazilas of Bogra district. Respondent fish farmers were selected using proportionate random sampling technique. Quantitative data were collected using predesigned interview schedule during August to September 2011. Socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents viz. ‘use of information sources’ ‘innovativeness’, ‘social participation’, ‘commercialization’ and hindrances of adoption i.e. ‘lack of technical knowledge’, ‘unavailability of credits in time’, ‘lack of quality fish fry’, ‘comparatively low market price’, ‘fish fry price is high’, ‘unavailability of quality fish feed’, ‘adulteration of fertilizers’ were the major dominating factors on adoption of modern aquaculture technologies. ‘formulated feed is costly’, ‘high production cost’

ABSTRACT

Shivaliks are highly fragile ecosystem of Himalayas threatened by problems like soil erosion, loss of tree cover, decreased productivity of fuel, fodder and food, to name a few. These problems are further being complicated due to ever increasing anthropogenic pressure. Maintenance and enhancement of soil fertility is not only vital for food security and environmental sustainability in the Shivalik hills, but all over the globe. Agroforestry is frequently proposed as a solution to problems of land and water degradation as well as an answer to shortages of food, fodder and fuel in the Shivaliks, and the same holds true for Jammu Shivaliks. Substantial environmental benefits accrue from planting trees. Suitable tree crop combinations as well as their management practices need to be worked out. Growing of trees and grasses in agroforestry systems such as agrihorticulture, silvipastoral, agrisilvipastoral are specially suited for Shivalik hills keeping in view their role in soil and water conservation. Additional agroforestry component i.e, animals can further hasten the ameliorative effect of agroforestry. In all, combination of trees, crops and/or animals on the same unit of land holds great potential for contributing to sustainable land use system which can help in conserving soil and water besides providing innumerable socio-economic benefits.

Email can be a wonderful tool for delivering feedback to students. Once a basic understanding of feedback’s role in learning has been established, one can begin to focus on how best to take advantage of the pedagogical functions of the com- munication medium. There is little doubt that email is changing how we commu- nicate and learn. For example, in an investigation of the effectiveness of email as a communication and instructional aid between instructors and students, Yu and Yu (2002) found “empirical evidence supporting the usefulness of e-mail as a prom- ising aid to promote student cognitive growth pertaining to computer knowledge and skills”.

Tao and Boulware (2002) suggest that email communication benefits teachers by “identif[ing] instructional focus and tak[ing] advantage of instructional moments to fit the developmental needs of their students in authentic situations”. They also find that email motivates learners, encourages authentic communication and cre- ates new learning opportunities.

Coordinate Reference System (CRS) is a framework of coordinate based local, regional or global reference system used to represent the locations of geographic features. Coordinate Reference Systems (CRS) provide a standardized way to define the real-world geographic locations which further enable us to use common locations of geographic datasets for integration. The datasets from different sources and CRS are transformed to a common CRS in order to perform various integrated analytical operations like overlaying of data layers. Coordinate Reference Systems are mainly of two types:

1. Geographic Coordinate System: This is global or spherical coordinate system in which locations of features on earth are defined in terms of latitude and longitude values. Latitude and longitude are angles based on a point at the centre of the earth. In this system, locations are defined by degrees, therefore, distances cannot be measured accurately. The most common geographic coordinate system is the World Geodetic System 84 (WGS84).
2. Projected Coordinate System: In this system, locations of features are defined using cartesian x, y coordinates on a flat, two – dimensional surface. This system is based on sphere or ellipsoid projected on flat surface. Projected Coordinate System are generally referred as projec- tion. It is required for preparing maps on paper or computer screen. Un- like Geographic Coordinate System, projected coordinate system has ac- curate measurements of distance, angles and areas across the two dimen- sions. However, there is alwaystrade-offs between area, direction, shape, and distance in this system due to distortions created while representing ellipsoid or spheroid on a flat map. So, the projection type is selected based on its application. Most common projections are Universal Trans- verse Mercator (UTM), Lambert Conformal Conic and Albers Equal Area.

The difficulty in conducting a factorial experiment in an RBD is that, as the number of factors and/ or that of levels of the factors increase, the number of treatment combinations to be compared increases too. This in turn necessitates use of large sized blocks to accommodate all the treatment combinations i.e in a 2^4 – experiment there should be 16 plots in a block. But it has been found that the experimental error increases with an increase in the size of a block, for then it becomes less effective in controlling the heterogeneity of the units. A remedy has been found out : this is to divide a replicate (a complete block) into a number of equal blocks (incomplete blocks) and then to allocate the treatment combinations to these blocks so that only the unimportant treatment comparisons gets mixed up or entangled with the block comparisons. These treatment comparisons are then said to be confounded or mixed up with block effects. These effects cannot be separately tested or estimated. But the remaining treatment effects, which are not confounded with the block effects, are still capable of separate estimation and testing.

Citizens’ Perceptions And City Revival : An Approach To Regeneration

Regeneration Strategies To Be Case Specific And Based On Citizens Perception

It is important to realise the driving force of the inherent potential of a city. In case of Allahabad, the Master Plan guidance was framed since 1950 but it is surprising that the role of the city as a cultural and educational node has not been sufficiently recognized and reflected in the Plan document. We still witness the development of the city like any other city of the state where special areas or historic precincts are surrounded by non-descript structures. It was essential to reach out to the citizens of Allahabad and to know their views on the growth and decline. The perception of citizens would give an idea about their belief regarding the degree of amendments needed in regenerating the city.

The disease was fi rst reported in Java in 1893 and is prevalent in all sugarcane growing countries. In India the disease occurs in an epiphytotic form in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar during 1939-1940 and 1946-1947 and cause severe damage that threatened the existence of sugar industries.

At a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 7.6%, the global poultry industry expanded from $352.02 billion in 2022 to $378.84 billion in 2023. Global production of chicken meat was projected to reach 103.4 million metric tons in 2023, primarily as a result of rising output in China, India, Brazil, and the US. India is currently the world’s second-largest egg producer (138.3 billion eggs in 2022–2023), trailing only China. It is also the world’s fifth-largest broiler producer (producing 4.99 metric tons (MT) in 2022–2023), behind China, the United States, Brazil, and the Russian Federation.

15.1 Biopiracy – Definition, Examples, and Impacts
Introduction
Biopiracy represents a grave ethical and legal concern in the field of biotechnology and intellectual property rights. It refers to the unauthorized and uncompensated exploitation of biological resources and traditional knowledge—primarily from developing countries—by corporations, research institutions, or individuals, often for commercial gains. Biopiracy is inherently unjust as it involves the misappropriation of community knowledge, undermining the rights of indigenous peoples, and violating the principles of equity, fairness, and sovereignty over natural resources.
As globalization intensifies biotechnological exploration, biopiracy challenges ethical norms and highlights the need for strong legal, institutional, and ethical safeguards.
Definition of Biopiracy
Biopiracy can be defined as:
“The unauthorized extraction, use, and commercialization of genetic resources or associated traditional knowledge from indigenous communities or biodiversity-rich regions without prior informed consent or fair and equitable benefit sharing.”
Biopiracy often involves patenting biological materials or indigenous medicinal knowledge without recognizing the origin communities as rightful holders of such knowledge or genetic wealth. It is closely linked to ethical misappropriation, exploitation, and violations of bioethical norms and international agreements.

Companion animals are all those species of animals which are kept by man for companionship and which are often referred to as pets. It is quite common to see community dogs or cats living in residential colonies. This is because due to very fast urbanization all the open spaces are getting used up for construction of residential complexes, and the animals like dogs and cats living on these open areas are getting displaced. The residents that occupy these residential buildings find these animals to be a nuisance and want them to evicted.

Pet and companion animal can be discussed under street dog/stray dogs and owner dogs.

Khejri (Prosopis cineraria), also known as shami (Sanskrit), janti and jand (Delhi, Haryana, Punjab), sumi (Gujarat), banni (Karnataka), kandi (Sindh) is a leguminous tree species of arid and semi-arid regions. It not only tolerates the extreme edapho-climatic conditions of these regions but also bears flowers and fruits and that too during the driest period from February to May (Pareek, 2002). Khejri is a tree having multipurpose uses, viz. nutritious rich pods and fodder and valuable fuel, besides its favourable effects on ecology and soil fertility(Arya et al.,1991). It is an important perennial component compatible to almost any companion crop in various agri-horti-forestry systems of production in the hot arid ecosystem (Harsh and Tewari, 1998). The crops such as bajra, guar, moth, mung, cowpea and ground nut during kharif and wheat, mustard, gram, etc. during rabi season are grown between the natural plantations of khejri trees without adverse effect on growth of crops. Almost all the vegetable crops grow better between the widespread natural this leguminous tree. Also the fruits such as ber, aonla, bael, kinnow, lime, etc. have been observed to perform better in association of khejri trees. Excellent growth and development of desert plant species of commercial significance such as jharber, ker, lasora, pilu, rohida, kumat, phog, kheep and grasses like sewan, dhaman, etc. has been observed in association with khejri trees (Mann and Saxena,1980; Samadia,2007, Samadia et al., 2009).

Abstract

Global warming is predicted to have significant effects in global potato production. Like many crops, potaoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide, temperature and precipitatiom, as well as interations between these factors. As well as affecting potatoes directly, climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests. Potato is one of the world’s most important food crops. Potato prodcution must be adapted to climate change to aviod reductions in crop yields. Potato plants and potato crop are predicted to benefit from increased carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere. The major benefit of increased atmospheric carbon dioxide for potatoes (and other plants) is an increase in thier photosynthetic rates which can increase their growth rates. Potato crop yields are also predicted to benefit because potates partition more starch to the ediable tubers under elevated carbon dioxides levels. Higher levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide also results in potatoes having to open thier stomata less to take up equal amount of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, which means loss through transpiration from stomata. As a result the water use efficiency (the amount of carbon assimilated per unit water lost) of potato plants is predicted to increase.

1. Introduction

Nothing in the universe is non medicinal everything has its value in its own way. Infectious diseases are an important health hazard all over the world, both in developing and developed countries. Several synthetic antibiotics are employed in the treatment of infectious and communicable diseases. A number of researchers nowadays are working seriously to find out substitutes for antibiotics as they cause side effects on the functioning of different parts of the body organs and systems. Antibiotics are also known to disturb the natural intestinal micro flora, thus depriving the benefits of these microbes to human body. Medicinal plants exhibit antimicrobial activity since they contain innumerable biologically active chemical constituents. The medicinal plant wealth, the strong and time tested traditional medicare systems like ayurveda and the human resource base are the strengths of India. Over the last forty years intensive efforts have been made to discover clinically useful antibacterial/ antifungal drugs (Sashikumar et al., 2003). Over 50% of all modern clinical drugs are of natural product origin (Ates, 2003). Higher plants as sources of medicinal compounds have continued to play a dominant role in the maintenance of human health since ancient times (Farombi, 2003).

1.1     Prokaryotic 
    
1.2     Eukaryotic
    
1.3     Cell orgenellie