eChapters

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Capsicum or chilli including paprika belonging to family Solanaceae, is a native of new world tropics and sub tropics. Within the genus Capsicum, mainly five species have been recognized as domesticated namely, Capsicum annuum, C. baccatum, C. chinense, C. frutescens and C. pubescens. Most of the commercially cultivated chilli cultivars as well as paprika belong to the species C. annuum. The cultivated Capsicum was introduced to India and Southeastern Asia in the 17th century by the Portugese. The name Capsicum is possibly derived from the Greek word ‘Kapso’ meaning ‘to bite’ referring to the dominant pungency stimulated by the spice, while ‘Paprika’ means plants of the genus Capsicum, in the Hungarian language. ‘Paprika’, is defined in the world market as non-pungent (sweet) brilliant red ground Capsicum powder, derived from the thick flesh dried red pods, with most of the seeds and veins removed. Both chilli and paprika are widely consumed as vegetable and spice all over the world. Mostly, the cultivars grown in Asian countries are pungent, while less and non-pungent cultivars are more common in European countries. Chilli of commerce is the dried pod, while it was pericarp (outer skin of the dried fruit) for paprika.

Introduction

India is the world’s second largest producer of rice, wheat and other cereals. The important cereals are-wheat, paddy, sorghum (Bajra), barley and maize etc. India is not only the largest producer of cereal as well as the largest exporter of cereal products in the world.

Foodgrain production (2019-20): 296 million tonnes

Scenario

Table: States producing maximum area and production of crops in India

The term ‘Management’ derived from word ‘manage’ derived from French

word menage means ‘housekeeping’.

According to Knootz and Weihrich 1988, ‘Management as the process of

designing and maintaining an environment in which individuals, working

together in groups, efficiently accomplish selected aims’.

According to Louis E.Boone and David L.Kurtz ‘management as the use of

people and other resources to accomplish objectives’.

POSDCORB is an acronym widely used in the field of Management and

Public Administration., it first appeared in a 1937 staff paper by Luther Gulick

and Lyndall Urwick. The acronym stands for steps in the administrative

process: Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, Coordinating, Reporting

and Budgeting.

13.1 Introduction

In agricultural lands, when the pores of the soil within the root zone of the crop get saturated with the subsoil water due to infiltration of high rainfall, excess irrigation or heavy seepage loss in the unlined canal systems, the air circulation within the soil pores get totally stopped. This phenomenon is called as waterlogging. In canal commands where there is continuous flow of water in the canals and canals are mostly unlined, there is heavy loss of seepage which raises the ground water table. This raising water table sometimes comes up to the ground surface which impedes surface drainage. By capillary action, under ground water rises to the crop root zone and submerges the roots of the crops for most of the time. This situation is called as waterlogging which creates salinisation and alkalinisation problems affecting the plant growth.

The height to which soil water rises above the water table by capillary action is called as capillary fringe. Generally, the height of the capillary fringe varies from 1 to 1.5 m. When the water table comes to 1.5 m below the surface of the soil, the land is said to be waterlogged. At times, due to poor drainage conditions, surface water cannot be freely drained out. The stagnate water in these low lying areas also causes waterlogging which enhances the weed growth consequently affecting the crop yield.

14.1 Introduction

Groundwater is an important source of water for irrigation. It is the most abundant fresh water resource of the earth. Underground water reservoirs contain large stock of fresh water resources. Total quantity of groundwater within 800 m distance below the ground surface is more than 30 times the total water in all fresh water lakes, more than 60 times the total water in soil and other unsaturated rock materials, more than 300 times the water vapour in the atmosphere and 3000 times the average volume of all rivers and rivulets in the world (Lenka, 2001). But the distribution of groundwater is not uniform. At some places, it lies below a few metres whereas at other places, it is a thousand metres or more below the ground surface. In some places, there is abundant groundwater potential whereas at other places there is meager potential.

Groundwater is the water reaching the groundwater reservoir from the infiltrated water of precipitation which constitutes an important component of the hydrologic cycle. It is only the part of the subterranean water that occurs in the saturated pores of the containing rock materials underlain by water held in a zone of aeration. It should not be confused that all the water present in soil below the ground surface is groundwater.

Q.1 In applying varying probability sampling for information of population total of X, it is required to know the values of selection probabilities Pi (i = 1, 2, 3,..., N).

Q.2 The technique of “Double Sampling” was first time formulated by Jayman, (1938) in connection of collecting information on strata sizes in stratified random sampling scheme.

Soil and growing media provide the physical, chemical, and biological foundation for successful horticultural production. This chapter explains soil properties, soil fertility, soil health, growing media, nutrient availability, and principles of plant nutrition. Emphasis is placed on soil testing, pH, electrical conductivity, organic matter, nutrient balance, and crop-specific fertilizer management. The chapter also introduces soilless media used in nurseries and protected cultivation. Understanding root-zone conditions is essential because horticultural crops are highly sensitive to water, aeration, salinity, and nutrient imbalance. Sustainable approaches such as composting, mulching, biofertilizers, and integrated nutrient management are discussed to maintain productivity while improving soil health and resource-use efficiency.

5.1 Introduction

Energy in the form of heat is one of the main energy requirements in domestic, agricultural, industrial and commercial sector of our economy. From an enduse point of view, solar thermal energy finds its application in these areas. Solar thermal energy devices convert radiant energy of the sun into thermal energy for different productive works. In fact, solar energy consists of infrared radiation, it is characteristics of infrared radiation that whenever it falls on any object, it converts into thermal heat energy.

The conversion of sun light into thermal energy is easily or conveniently achieved by means of a metallic or plastic cover, painted black with ordinary black board paint or having selected coating over it and covered with one- or double-glazing cover for transmitting solar radiation inside it. This metallic cover is known as absorber, below it either channels or pipes or passages for allowing entry of water or air are provided, through which heat energy is transferred to working medium either air or water. The absorber plate is covered with suitable thickness of insulating material on its back or sides for preventing loss of heat from the absorber plate. This complete system is enclosed in an airtight box. When exposed to solar radiations, the blackened metallic surface absorbs solar energy and converts into heat. This heat could be used for cooking of food, heating of water and air, evaporation of moisture form the grains etc. In fact, absorber works on the principle of black body, which absorbs maximum and a good absorber, is a good emitter. Hence generated heat could be utilized for different applications.

Oilseed Brassicas also referred to as rapeseed-mustard, an important group of oilseed crops in the world, comprise eight cultivated crops of tribe Brassiceae within the family Cruciferae (Brassicaceae). The word ‘rape’ and ‘mustard’ have been derived from the word rapum meaning turnip and European practice of mixing the sweet ‘must’ of old wine with crushed seeds of black mustard [Brassica nigra (L.) Koch] to form a hot paste (Hemingway, 1976).

1. GEOLOGY

Geology : Earth Science

 Geo = Earth + Logos = Science

 Def : The science which investigates the history of the earth is known as geology.

 Following are the important branches of geology.

1.Coal Geology : it is related with natural gas, coal deposits and their formation.

2.Crystallography : includes the crystal and atomic structure of the mineral. 3. Drilling Technology : it is related with the cores, core logging and coorelation of the lithology.

4.Engineering Geology and Surveying : it is related with engineering aspects of the earth.

27. STRIKE AND DIP

Outcrop : A part of the rock formation which crops out or exposed on the surface of the earth is called an outcrop.

The total area over which a particular rock unit occurs at the surface whether visibly exposed or not. The term outcrop is especially used for delination of such an area on a geological map.

Attitude : To study these outcrops their attitude help in better understanding the position of the bed on the ground surface or in field is attitude of a bed can be described with the help of two basic structural elements i.e. strike and dip.

8.1. INTRODUCTION

The existence of Science could be in danger, if scientists did not record experiment performed, data collected and resuit obtained. Scientific writing doesn't mean to only keep records of progress and information, but to actually publish the results of studies in scientific journals. While keeping records is quite easy to do, publishing scientific papers can be really difficult, and especially for young researchers who are just starting to discover the world of scientific publications. A scientific writing is a method of communication, an attempt to tell others about some specific data that you have gathered and what you think those data mean in the context of your research. The rules of writing a scientific paper are rigid and are différent Uorr\ those that apply when we write an English theme. Scientific paper must be written clearly and concisely so that readers with backgrounds similar to yours can understand easily what you have done and how you have done it. The ultimate aim of most scientists is to publish their research findings in professional scientific reports. This includes peer-reviewed journal articles, which report original findings and contribute to the global pool of scientific knowledge. Scientists spend their time writing proposais, planning research, undertaking experiments, analysing data, tracing research, and reading related articles. Published reports and journal articles provide evidence of this dedication. Therefore, a scientific report is not simply some extra work that is done at the end of a project; it is an important historical document that provides evidence of work to the wider scientific community.

1. INTRODUCTION

Motifs are patterns in biological sequences which can indicate the presence of certain biological characteristics and function. In general, these could represent patterns in any kind of biological sequences such as DNA sequences, RNA sequences and protein sequences. Evolutionary conserved regions (ECRs) are sequences with atleast 100 bp length alongwith minimum 70% identity, which includes most of the protein-coding exons, promoters, enhancers and repressors. ECRs are the preliminary step for finding TFBSs (Transcription factor binding sites) within the raw genome sequences of higher eukaryotes (large sizes of the genomes). DNA sequence motifs are short length, recurring patterns in DNA and are known to be associated with a biological function. These motifs sometimes indicate sequence specific binding sites for proteins such as nucleases and transcription factors (TF). Some sequence motifs are involved in biological processes at RNA level, such as ribosome binding, mRNA processing (splicing, editing, polyadenylation) and transcription termination. Motif identification is important at protein level for biological processes such as protein-subcellular localization, protein membrane, protein-protein interactions, identification of active site of enzyme(s) and post-translational modifications. Motif search is useful in understanding gene function, human disease, drug design, etc. Regulation of splicing in eukaryotes occurs through the coordinated action of multiple splicing factors. Sequence motifs are also useful in the study of genetic regulatory networks and regulatory program of individual genes.

Shrubs are usually woody or semi-woody perennial plants; their branches arise from the base of the plants and grow up to the height of 3 to 4 meter. Many shrubs, which are more or less prostrate, make excellence ground flower. Availability of a large number of species & cultivars, a wide range of variation in shape & size of the plants, diversified types of leaves, growth habit, remarkable ranges of size, shape, colour of flowers & the variety of fragrance have made the shrubs as important garden plants. Several species of shrubs have unusually attractive colours.

Most of the shrubs are hardy & grow in all types of soil with little attention. Although some plants flower almost throughout the year, in most cases they are seasonal. A selection can be made in such a way that some plants in the shrubbery will be in bloom in any season of the year. Most of these plants are fairly quick growing and when vegetatively propagated, start flowering in the first year. Plants like Bauhinia acuminata (Kanchnar), Cassia alata (Candle Bush), Vinca rosea,which are usually grown from seeds also produced flowers in the first year.Shrubs can be classified into three groups according to the requirement of the sunlight for growth & flowering:

Key facts

    
•    Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are micropollutants with estrogenic or androgenic activities at very low concentrations and are emerging as a major concern for water quality.
    
•    EDCs include natural and synthetic hormones (Estrone or E1, 17b-estradiol or E2, Estriol or E3, 17a-ethynylestradiol or EE2); alkylphenols (nonylphenol or NP; octyphenol or OP), phenols (bisphenol-A or BPA), phthalates (Di-n-butyl phthalate or DBP, Di-2-(ethylhexyl)-phthalate or DEHP); organotins (tributyltin or TBT); and phytoestrogens (b-sitosterol, coumestrols, genistein). 
    
•    Wastewater treatment plants, intensive livestock effluents, industrial wastewaters, landfill, paper and pulp mill effluents and antifouling paints are important sources of EDCs in the environment.

Key facts
    
•    Biotoxins are naturally occurring toxic compounds produced by some freshwater cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) and marine algal species (dinoflagellates, diatoms).
    
•    Tonnes of pharmacologically active substances are used annually in human and veterinary medicines, some of these substances are excreted (human and animal) non-metabolised or an active metabolites and enter into the environment since waste water treatment plant (WWTP) cannot degrade them.
    
•    In Europe, around 4,000 different pharmaceutically active compounds are used as human and veterinary drugs and the annual consumption is about several hundred tonnes.
    
•    European Union and the United States laws require an assessment of potential risks to the environment as part of license application processes for new medicinal products.

•    Pharmaceutical products are generally polar, water soluble and low volatile molecules, it means that they have high mobility in the environment.

3.1. Introduction

This chapter intends to examine the economic importance of cotton, turmeric and castor seed in the agricultural economy of Odisha. Given the fact that Odisha is one of the major producing states of the country for these three crops, their physical markets have national level relevance in terms of determining prices. The chapter presents a brief profile of the agricultural economy of Odisha with a focus on these three crops and their supply conditions including cropping season, pattern, area under cultivation and productivity. Secondly, it tries to investigate the market structure, supply chain and marketing practices in cotton, turmeric and castor seed based on the data obtained from the secondary sources.

Indian economy is agro-based and agriculture is its mainstay as it constitutes the backbone of the rural livelihood security system. Agriculture has been and still continues to be the life line of the Indian economy since economic security is essentially predicted upon the agricultural and allied sectors. The agriculture sector encompasses crop production, animal husbandry, fisheries, agri-business, etc. Crop production depends upon crucial inputs such as good seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation, human labour, machinery and management.

As the largest private enterprise in India, agriculture supports more than 60% of the population, contributes nearly 19% to India’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and 11% to the total exports. Around 51% of the geographical area in India is already under cultivation as compared to 11% of the world average¹. Agriculture is also a social sector where non-trading concerns like food and nutritional security, employment and income generation, poverty alleviation, ecological and environmental concerns play a significant role.

Commercial capers are the immature flower buds, which have been pickled in vinegar or preserved in granular salt; they are used raw or cooked as condiment in different recipes. Semi- mature fruits (caper berries) and young shoots with small leaves may also be use as a condiment in salads or as an appetizer before meal. Capers and caper plants, wild and/or cultivated, are used in almost all the area of Capparis subgenus Capparis, extending from West Africa to the Norfolk islands in the Pacific, and most of the species are of alimentary or medicinal interest (Rivera, Inocencio, Obón & Alcaraz, 2003).

Capparis is a term coined by Theophrastus (4th cent. BC) and validated by Dioscorides (1st cent. AD) (Êáððáñéò), although it seems not to have come into wide use until the spread of the Arab world.
 
Caper and its relatives in several European languages can be traced back to Classical Latin Capparis “caper”. Latin Capparis, in turn, was loaned from Greek kapparis [êáððáñéò], whose origin (as that of the plant) is unknown but probably West or Central Asia. Another theory links kapparis to the name of the island Cyprus (Kypros [Êáðñïò]), where capers grow abundantly.

Sixteen chemical elements are known to be important to a plant’s growth and survival. The sixteen chemical elements are divided into two main groups: non-mineral and mineral.  The Non-Mineral Nutrients are hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), and carbon (C). These nutrients are found in the air and water.
  
In a process called photosynthesis, plants use energy from the sun to change carbon dioxide (CO₂ - carbon and oxygen) and water (H₂O- hydrogen and oxygen) into starches and sugars. These starches and sugars are the plant’s food. Since plants get carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen from the air and water, there is little the farmers and gardeners can do to control  how much of these nutrients a plant can use.

1. Introduction

Sustainability embodies an ecological vision aimed at fostering enduring human coexistence on Earth. Over time, its definition has evolved in literature and context, generating ongoing debate. Generally, experts frame sustainability around three pillars: social, economic, and environmental. While environmental concerns often dominate discussions, sustainability encompasses broader challenges like pollution, land degradation, biodiversity loss, climate change, and ecosystem service decline. This concept influences decision-making globally, politically, and personally.

Sustainable development, often used interchangeably with sustainability, is distinguished by UNESCO as a long-term objective versus the diverse processes and pathways to achieve it. Within the economic dimension, the tension between welfare and environmental preservation is explored through concepts like “weak and strong sustainability,” acknowledging the necessity of trade-offs. Ideal policies would aim to decouple environmental degradation from economic growth.

Environmental sustainability is pursued through various means such as ecosystem preservation, collaborative resource management, reducing food waste, advocating plant-based diets, managing fertility rates to curb population growth, and transitioning away from fossil fuels towards clean energy and innovative green technologies.