eChapters

Abstract
 
Within the time scale for soil formation, humans appeared to the planet within the last 1 million years. They shifted their lifestyle from hunter-gatherer to nomadic animal husbandry and finally to cultivation of domesticated crops only within the last 10,000 yrs. Earlier, these crops were cultured in a semi-nomadic style as land was plentiful, so when soil lost its productivity, people abandoned it in favor of new-land. Gradually, as land became scarcer and population exploded, agriculture evolved to continuous cropping of the same parcel of land. This discovered the major concern for soil health. As organic matter is key to soil health, humus is the last stage of organic matter decomposition. Humus is a complex aggregate of dark brown colored amorphous substances, which have originated during the decomposition of plant and animal residues by microorganisms, under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Humus and living microorganisms are connected by numerous ways which must be appreciated in order to understand the origin and nature of humus. Our attempt is to narrate the role of organic matter and vital role of microbes in humification process.

Abstract

Electronic waste or e-waste is one of the emerging problems in developed and developing countries worldwide. The constantly changing today’s world of technology has led to the serious problem of e-waste. The previous studies show that India has generated 0.6 million tons of e-waste in 2014 which may increase to 0.7 to 0.9 million tons by 2015–2016. E-waste constitutes multiple components some of which are toxic that can cause serious health and environmental issues if not handled properly. The challenge is to develop innovative and cost-effective solutions to decontaminate polluted environments, to make them safe for human habitation and consumption, and to protect the functioning of the ecosystems which support life. Biological approach is currently applied to recovery of metals from contaminated soil, groundwater, surface water, and sediments including air.

Abstract

Now a days, the public has become more sensitive towards the protection of the environment and general awareness has increased about the adverse effects of industrial effluents contaminate with various pollutants, including dyes on the environment. Dyes are an important class of synthetic organic compounds used in many industries, especially textiles. Consequently, they have become common industrial environmental pollutants during their synthesis and later during fiber dyeing. Textile industries are facing a challenge in the field of quality and productivity due to the globalization of the world market. The dyes, which are widely used in textile industries when left in water bodies without any treatment cause environmental pollution and in turn are toxic, carcinogenic and mutagenic. The efficient treatment of the sludge from the industries is not economical and a challenging task. Currently, a number of different technologies and methods such as biological, physical and chemical are widely used for the removal of dyes. The treatment technologies for the removal of textile dyes from the textile wastewater found that over the past two decades interestingly focused on biodegradation methods such as microbial decolourization, enzymatic decolourization, adsorption by microbial biomass (living or dead) and bioremediation systems as a better alternative as the available physico-chemical methods.

Abstract

With recent advances in molecular biology and rapid developments in new analytical techniques, engineering of microbes for the bioremediation processes has been extensively studied as recombinant microbes can degrade various toxic pollutants effectively. The prospect of microbial engineering has greater potentialities for agriculture and environmental applications and this may provide us deeper insight in understanding the microbial interactions and biotransformation processes. Though much work has been carried out on bioremediation using genetically engineered microorganisms, its application is restricted to environment due to the concerns of health and environment over ecosystem. Nevertheless, evaluation of risk assessment has also been carried out in order to ascertain the potential benefits of transgenic microbes.

Abstract

Traditional practices of restoring and vegetating mine spoils, which include mechanical tillage, the addition of tons of organic and mineral inputs, seeding of herbaceous plants, and regular fertilization, are often expensive and not sustainable on the long term in the Canadian boreal forest biome. Phytobial restoration and remediation may be an excellent alternative to these traditional practices while accelerating ecosystem reconstruction and sustainable reforestation of mined sites. In this review, the role and importance of root symbionts – ectomycorrhizal fungi, PGPR, and Frankia – on boreal tree fitness are discussed. Furthermore, highlights of recent research studies done by our team in Canada on ecological restoration and bioremediation of boreal mined sites are presented.

Abstract
 
Opencast mining destroys the original land ecosystem and microbial community due to mining and stockpiling of mine rejects on adjoining land, which is a matter of great environmental concern. Mining creates formation of wastelands, formation of gullies, ravines, overburdens, reduced water infiltration and increased runoff. Reclamation of mined out areas is often difficult due to its chemical, physical and biological traits. Absence of topsoil is the most common feature of the mine spoils dumps. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), the synonym of VAM fungi, are important microbes of soil that form symbiotic association with most of the terrestrial plants on the earth. Observations led to use of legume microsymbionts as biological substitutes for fertilizers. AMF diversity increases with species diversity of plants as the potential number of association increases. Dominant arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi can prevent the invasion of non-mycorrhizal plants on land where they have established symbiosis and promote their mycorrhizal host.

Abstract

Mine spoils pose adverse conditions for soil microbes and plant growth, due to its low organic content and other essential nutrients, unfavourable soil chemistry and poor soil texture. Poor microbial population inhibits nutrient transformation, consequently the establishment of the plants and ultimately affects the process of ecological succession. A synergy among different groups of beneficial microbes accompanied by plantation of suitable tree species on mined over area has proved to be effective for speedy and efficient revitalization of the mined affected lands. Inoculation of plantation with efficient strains of native microbes accelerates the soil redevelopment and helps to establish nutrients cycle readily which attracts native flora thereby the pace of natural regeneration is increased. It is therefore imperative to consider the application of effective microflora in restoration of mined lands along with the plantation.

Abstract

Alleviating plant salt stress and remediating saline soils are of great economic interest. Beneficial microbes such as arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi, plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), etc. are associated with many plant species including trees. These beneficial microbes can cope up with salinity and help the plants to survive in such soils. Diversity status of beneficial microbes from the samples collected from different salt affected areas was investigated by many researchers. They screened and identified the efficient PGPR isolates isolated from saline areas for plant growth hormone (IAA) production and phosphate solubilization. The significance and highlights of the recent research as well as the past understanding of beneficial microbes and their role in reclamation of saline areas is discussed in this paper.

Abstract

Sustainable landscape and forest management are of utmost concern in alleviating climate change. Fungal mutualism is one of the most significant positive biotic interactions responsible for forest structure and longevity. Coastal sand dunes imitate xeric habitats, while mangroves and river floodplains are often marshy. In spite of such extremities, mycorrhizal fungi are prominent component in coastal vegetation. Studies so far revealed that mycorrhizal association in herbaceous plant species is responsible for dune formation, stabilization and serve as potential inoculum in coastal habitats. Mycorrhizal association facilitates plant species to exploit larger volume of soil, supply nutrients (organic nitrogen, phosphorus and minerals), aggregates soil, provides tolerance to salinity stress, relieves from water stress and protects roots from pathogens. Human interference has severe impacts on plant-mycorrhizal mutualism in coastal habitats. Cultivation of exotic tree species and their uncontrolled exploitation further impoverish the habitats. Protection of native herbaceous flora, cultivation of native tree species and introduction of selected indigenous keystone species in disturbed habitats with mycorrhizal mutualism is an appropriate measure of rehabilitation.

Abstract

Since the first oil well drilled successfully in 1859, crude oil has been a serious problem around world, including Indonesia. As a source of all petroleum products, crude oil is very complex component and divided into aliphatic, aromatic, resin and asphaltene. Petroleum products have been used for daily life and created large amounts of pollutants in environment and ecosystems around the globe. The pollutants should be treated by certain method; among them, bioremediation has several advantages to resolve the problem. In 2003, Ministry of Environmental (MoE) – Republic Indonesia was endorsed with a new regulation about biological treatment or bioremediation for crude oil contaminated soil (MoE regulation No. 128/2003). The most important to be noted in bioremediation process is the presence of microbes with certain metabolite capabilities. The degradation rate also can be improved and sustained by ensuring the adequate required factors. This article describes the removal of crude oil by utilization of microbial potentials, factors affecting biodegradation, and how they are applied in Indonesia.

Flowers attract both young and old alike. They are associated with mankind from the dawn of civilization. These have become an integral part of human life in the modern era.
 
The Indian floriculture industry has been shifting from traditional flowers to cut flowers and dry flowers for export purposes. The liberalized economy has given an impetus to the Indian entrepreneurs for establishing export oriented floriculture units under controlled climatic conditions. About 60,000 hectares, area is under floriculture at present. During nineties, increasing demands for flowers in world market was coupled with production technology available abroad for high quality flowers.

Preserving flowers dates back to earliest recorded history. The first evidence of use of dry flowers was when the bones of a pre historic man discovered in the Middle East were found with a mantle of delicate wild flowers. The pollen grains that remain indicated specific flowers that were used. During ancient times people used to freshen or enliven their rooms with fresh sweet smelling flowers. In the sixteenth century, when the Elizabethan Age was coming to a close, it was considered fashionable to wear silk flowers as part of one’s attire. These days flowers are dried and are versatile in their use. They supply us with food, medicines, ornaments and adornment. Flowers became essential for a fashionable appearance. Each civilization developed its own interpretation of flowers. Pressed flower art became popular in Victorian times. The Japanese use pressed plants and colorful papers to create Oshibana Art.

3.1 Indian Floriculture Industry

Indian floriculture industry has been shifting from traditional flowers to cut flowers and dry flowers for export purposes. The liberalized economy has given an impetus to the Indian entrepreneurs for establishing export oriented floriculture units under controlled climatic conditions. About 60,000 ha area is under floriculture at present. During nineties, increasing demands for flowers in world market was coupled with production technology available abroad for high quality flowers. This encouraged some entrepreneurs to establish export-oriented units in Hyderabad, especially for the production of long stem rose by importing cultivars and adapting green house technology.

4.1 Dry Flower Garden

Contrary to popular assumptions, the area required for producing large quantity of dried flower material need not also be large. However, the garden should be planned so as to harvest dry flowers all year round by planting evergreens, deciduous plants, annuals and perennials. Rows of flowering plants should be planted in the dry flower garden. Herbs are easy to grow, and can be planted in pots and window boxes. They are useful in transforming simple cooking into gourmet dishes, while also lending their delicate scents to a room when dried and for use in wreaths, pot pourri and arrangements. Gardens for dry flower production should include a wide selection of weeds, grains, seed-heads and pods. Flowers such as hydrangeas, zinnias, roses, dahlias and sunflowers and a selection of line flowers such as golden rods, statice, gladiolus, larkspur and delphinium can also be grown as these will provide a greater variety of flowers needed in flower arrangements.

Various methods are employed to dry flowers and foliage. The method adopted for drying depends largely on the character of the plant, that is to say whether the plant is glabrous, succulent or not succulent, hardy or delicate in nature. The suitable method for drying any given plant has to be studied elaborately. However, the different methods of drying are described broadly in this and consequent chapters.

Pressing Flowers

One of the most popular methods for drying flowers is to put them under pressure, to remove the moisture out while leaving the color of the flowers and structure intact. There are several ways to apply pressure to flowers. The easiest method is placing them in heavy books and allow for drying. Flower presses can also be used. Some guidelines for pressing flowers in the traditional way are explained below:

Drying by Embedding

A desiccant is simply a substance with a high affinity for water which can be used as a drying agent. Embedding the flowers in a granular, desiccating material is probably the most commonly used method and many consider it the best all around method. Several materials are used as drying agents. All the agents used vary in cost and in the results they produce. It is important to use the correct procedure when covering the flowers so that their form is maintained. Most well known is silica gel, but also clean dry sand can be used. Usually an airtight container is used; the flower heads are placed in the drying mixture face up, and very carefully covered with the mixture. The container must be kept closed during the drying process. After 4-14 days, depending on the thickness of the flower, the flower will be dry.

Microwave Oven Drying

Microwave drying is quick and relatively simple. It takes only a few minutes and provides dried flowers that look fresher and more colorful than obtained by other methods. Flowers with thick petals like magnolia are not suitable for drying in microwave. Since flowers vary in moisture content, texture and density, care should be taken to use the same sized flowers from one species at a time. It has been found that many flowers held almost true to life color and form using this process. Brightly colored flowers are best to dry. Flowers such as lilies, roses, violets, zinnias, and dahlias work well with this process.

The process for freeze dried flowers began in 1989. Freeze drying was first used by the Peruvian Incas of the Andes, who stored their food on the heights of the Andes. The ancient Incas were the first to learn the benefits of sublimation. They discovered that when they dried food at high elevations, the results were better. Even though the food would freeze, it would dry well if left exposed to the sun. The reduced pressure at high elevation, combined with the dry air and energy from the sun, had caused sublimation to occur.

Bleaching is essentially whitening or decolourizing. It is an important step in the processing of dry plants. It involves chemical processes that can change the ability of colour bodies to absorb light by changing their degree of saturation (Robson, 1967). This chemical action removes the discolouration occurring during the dehydration phase of preservation of plants. It allows the effective use of dyes for colouring. Bleaching agent is a material that lightens or whitens a substrate through chemical action. To reduce the processing costs, multistage bleaching is suggested. In this method, both oxidative and reductive bleaching chemicals are used.

The major drawback of dried arrangements and other dry flower products is that they are dull and lack the brightness of fresh flowers. To overcome this problem, flowers are bleached and dyed. This enhances the visual appeal of the product. Both chemical and natural dyes can be used. Squires (1971) reported on the use of various types of paints to colour dried foliage and flowers using brushes or by dipping and spraying. Enamel paints, interior paints, poster paints and tube paints could be employed for this purpose. Tampion and Reynolds (1971) explained the three ways by which dyeing can be carried out for fresh flowers. They are as follows:

One of the important aspects of dry flowers is the pleasure of gathering flowers and grasses to make wonderful dried arrangements. The only drawback is that the original colors fade and the floral arrangements can end up looking like a bunch of straw. To enhance the colors of dried flowers, dyeing is advocated. While coloring ferns or small leaves, it is better to work on an aluminum foil or waxed paper so it can collect extra paint, which can be used on another leaf. Leaves should be lightly brushed, and never saturated with paint. The painted specimens are placed on the waxed paper or on a computer paper to dry. Newsprint should not be used.

Skeleton Leaves

Skeleton leaves are semi-transparent leaves, also called fossil leaves. They are prepared by soaking the fresh leaves in bleached water and then by hand rubbing the soft green flesh from the network of veins. The leaves can be then dyed to variant colors to give them a beautiful and pleasing appearance. Although delicate by nature, they are actually sturdy and can easily be glued to a variety of surfaces. They come in several colors and sizes to meet a complete line of crafting needs. The delicate beauty of these leaves is sometimes meant to capture life, hope and memories. These delicate, gorgeous skeleton leaves are a perfect accent for all craft projects. They make a beautiful and elegant statement when they adorn your wedding invitations. They work surprisingly well on gift tags, greeting cards, scrapbooks, collages, papermaking, stenciling, and stamping. They are perfect for decorating bridal bouquet, wedding reception table, candles, and wedding favors.

Flowers blooming in a garden can be preserved by drying them for use in arrangements, decorations and various other applications. Natural dry flowers can be annual or perennial. Some of the important annuals used for dry flower making are described below.

14.1 Annual Flowers

Plants classified as annuals are those that complete their life cycle within the space of one year. Annual flowers are versatile and sturdy. The annuals have many uses in landscaping. Annual flowers are beautiful and garden lovers tend to preserve these flowers throughout. They dry these flowers and store them for use in several beautiful dry flower arrangements.

Perennial Flowers

Perennial flowers have a life span of more than one year and usually bloom during a specific time period every year during the growing season. These flowers are hardy and herbaceous. They need less maintenance, less water, and fewer pesticides than annuals. Perennials are easily used as ground covers, mixed with annuals, grown in containers and used as accents or specimen plants. Many perennials are short bloomers and are best mixed with others that bloom at different times or included with other landscape plants. These flowers are treasured by gardeners as heirloom plants and have proven themselves to be hardy enough to withstand weather and climate extremes. They are treasured in their dried form for beautiful and exotic dried flower arrangements.

Dried Grasses

Grasses are easy to collect to dry and use. When the seed-heads have formed, the grass is cut off just above the soil using a sharp knife. They are allowed to lie in a thin layer in the sun for a day or two, turning them over a few times. They should not be allowed to get too damp. After they are dried they are put into a plethora of uses. Bunches of dried grasses can make a wonderful addition to any home or office.

Dried Leaves

Leaves are dried or preserved to capture the beauty of spring and hold it for a long time. Dried leaves are beautiful when used in any decoration. There are several preserving techniques that help to enhance the prized collection of leaves well. Drying leaves is an age old tradition. Leaves were dried to preserve them. The leaves were picked for their medicinal qualities, fragrance, or to be used as spices and for their decorative value. Leaves can be preserved by various ways: 

Dried Petals

Many types of dried petals are used for making pot pourii eg., land lotus petals, rose petals, mahogany petals, lily petals and lotus petals. Flowers are dried for everlasting beauty. They add an elegant touch to the room and are dried for everlasting beauty. Preserving blooms is a wonderful way to preserve memories and enjoy long lasting splashes of color. Many flower parts are used in dried form. A vibrant and thrilling range of dried petals are used to embellish greeting cards, folders, books, and other personal belongings.

Dried Fruits and Pods

The enchanting beauty and usage of fresh pods or fruits need not end up with the season. They are dried and preserved for years. A colorful array of choice dried fruits are very popular in dried arrangements. There are numerous dried fruits and pods used in potpourri and dried flower arrangements.

Artificial flowers are a great source of handmade decorations. Beautiful handmade artificial flowers are suitable for banquets, weddings or to decorate any room in the home. They are generally made of paper or cloth and in a variety of colors. They come in either a bouquet form or can be ordered as individual stems. There are different kinds of artificial flowers including silk flower, latex flower, flowers made from natural leaves and embroidery flower.

Introduction

Floral arrangement is the art of selecting and organizing flowers and foliage according to the elements and principles of design in order to attain a pleasing and interesting design. Arranging flowers is an artistic activity and a way to express oneself creatively.

21.1 Flowers and Foliage

Successful floral arrangement begins with plant materials that have been properly handled and prepared. Beauty and good composition of an arrangement is not determined by the cost or rarity of plant materials used, but by the way they are selected, cared for and arranged. The plant material has to be handled carefully, handling only the stems. Properly dried, bleached and dyed flowers, foliage and accessories can be arranged following the principles for dry flower arrangement.

Dry Flower Products

Dry flowers are aesthetically beautiful and they enhance the décor and liveliness of any room. They bring the fiery warmth and bounty of the season into the home with ease every fall. Much of fall’s beauty lies in the glorious changing colors of autumn leaves. These flowers are dried to use them in a wide range of products. Dried floral products are widely used for decoration and for adding zest to a room. Apart from that they are also used as an essential component of many products. They are widely used to make handmade paper, lampshades, candle holders, jute bags, photo frames, boxes, books, wall quilts, topiary, cards and several gifts. The use of dry flowers in the making of these products enhances the appearance and beauty of these products. They look sophisticated when gifted to someone or used as a décor of your own home.

23.1 Dry Flower Packing

Careful packing is one of the most important aspects of any product. Dry flower packing is the simplest way to capture the essence of summer flowers till long. Dry flowers should be packed nicely to avoid any damage. They should be packed alone in appropriate sized carton loosely cushioned with paper.They should be packed in a manner to keep them away from direct sunlight leaving some room for air. Packing material should be stable and firm to hold the dry flowers well without any damage during storage or transportation. Dry flowers can be packed in a variety of ways: in poly bags, window box, cardboard box, or in a sachet.

Driftwood is wood that has been washed onto a shore or beach of a sea or river by the action of winds, tides, waves or man. It is a form of marine debris or tide wrack.

In some waterfront areas, driftwood is a major nuisance. However, the driftwood provides shelter and food for birds, fish and other aquatic species as it floats in the ocean. Gribbles, shipworm sand bacteria decompose the wood and gradually turn it into nutrients that are reintroduced to the food web. Sometimes, the partially decomposed wood washes ashore, where it also shelters birds, plants, and other species. Driftwood can become the foundation for sand dunes.

Preserving plant materials in a dried form is not a new idea. It has been considered as an art for hundreds of years. Fragrant dried herbs were placed in Egyptian pyramids. Dry flower arrangements have been popular in Europe for several centuries. During 1700 A.D, the early American settlers used dry flowers to brighten their homes. Any plant material can be preserved for use as dry flowers (Al Pertuit, 2004). Though enormous work is being done in this field, most of the literature is published by horticulture amateurs. Scientific work in this area is less. However, a review of the research work done in dry flower technology is discussed in detail.

ABSTRACT

Biodiversity is often understood in terms of wide variety of plants, animals and micro-organisms existing on the earth. So far, about 1.75 million species have been identified, mostly small creatures such as insects. According to scientific estimates, there are actually about 13 million species, although range from 3 million to 100 millions. The present article deals with the importance and threats of biodiversity as well as tries to highlights the role of government and non-government sectors in conservation of biodiversity. The initial part of the article indicates the concept of evolution and biodiversity, wherein we have tried to identify the present scenario. We find that a wide range of microbial, plant and animal species are sources of various biological products for human use and welfare. These species are getting lost or extinct due to lack of conservation over a period of long time. Therefore, an effort has been made to highlight the conservation acts and important rules and regulations for protecting and conserving the bio-resources.

ABSTRACT

Microorganisms play a key role for the proper running of the ecosystem. They help in nitrogen fixation, which is unique and most necessary property found only in this group. They help in decompositions, mineralization, nutrient cycling, phosphate solubilization, soil aggregate formation, symbioses, parasitism and many other important works. A great emphasis has been given by many scientists to conserve the microbial diversity. Developing human civilization has a great negative impact not only on the above ground biodiversity but also on the belowground biodiversity. This article is an overview, what important and crucial role nitrogen fixers play for maintaining soil and plant health. Nitrogen fixer not only fixes atmospheric nitrogen but also produces growth promoting hormones which are very important for plant growth. 

Abstract

Mycorrhizal symbiosis is a highly evolved mutually beneficial relationship found between Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) and vascular plants. Knowledge of taxonomic and functional diversity of AM fungi is important in understanding the biology and ecology of such a widespread mycorrhizal symbiosis. Classification and identification of AM fungi remains in the formative stages of growth, with all the attendant turmoil. Since Glomus is known to be an important AM genera for providing multifacet benefit to several economically important plants. Hence, in this review article an attempt has been made to describe 120 Glomus species along with the line diagram of 63 Glomus species for their proper identification that can be used as an identification manual for mycorrhizal researchers.

ABSTRACT

Pesticide degradation is the breaking down of toxic pesticides into a non-toxic compounds and, in some cases, down to the original elements from which they were derived. The most common type of degradation is carried out in the soil by microorganisms, especially the fungi and bacteria. Microbial degradation depends not only on the presence of microbes with the appropriate degradative enzymes, but also on a wide range of environmental parameters. Pesticides which are rapidly degraded are called non-persistent while those which resist degradation are termed as recalcitrant (persistent). Microorganisms are able to degrade a large variety of compounds, including pesticides under laboratory conditions. However, methods have yet to be developed to decontaminate the environment from pesticide residues. Continuous efforts are required in this direction, and at present several PGPR capable of degrading pesticides have been isolated from the natural environment. Catabolic genes responsible for the degradation of several xenobiotics, including pesticides, have been identified, isolated, and cloned into various other organisms such as Streptomyces, algae, fungi, etc. In addition, recombinant DNA studies have made it possible to develop DNA probes that are being used to identify microbes from diverse environmental communities with a unique ability to degrade pesticides. Bioremediation treatment still requires more intense research through specific microbial degradation of broad range of organic pollutants. This review describes recent advances in biodegradation of pesticides by addressing the microbes involved in pesticide degradation.

ABSTRACT

The present paper describes application of synergistic action of microalgae viz., Spirulina platensis, Chlorella vulgaris, and Oscillatoria princeps coupled with state-of-the-art microbial biotechnology (that involved strains of Bacillus subtilis, Nitrobacter winogradskyi, Aspergillus flavus, and A. niger) developed by Biotechnology Resource Centre (BRC), Mumbai for treatment of secondary liquid effluents from a gelatine manufacturing industry. The growth of mixed cultures of selected microbial and algal species was measured respectively in terms of Colony Forming Units (CFUs) and Optical density (O.D.) of the culture. The results were indicative of efficient degradation potential of the proteinaceous liquid effluents. Moreover their BOD and COD loads reduced by 30.75 % and 84.10 % respectively after the treatment. Furthermore, the bio-safety of algal biomass cultured in selected effluents as feed supplement was tested on Swiss albino mice (Mus musculus). Mice in treated group didn’t exhibit any observable adverse effect on their growth or on their reproductive performance. In fine, the liquid effluents of gelatine manufacturing industries were polished along with production of probiotic food supplement.

Abstract

Elaboration of mycotoxins by several moulds in different agricultural commodities has been reported to be widespread. The mycotoxins are reported to cause variety of health hazards in different animals including Chicks, cow, horse, rat, Mouse, pig, rabbit, dog, including man. More than 150 species of moulds are reported to elaborate chemically and biologically diverse toxic metabolites. These mycotoxins  are known to induce variety of diseases commonly known as mycotoxicoses.The fungi which elaborate mycotoxins are diverse belonging to different groups of fungi.Mycotoxigenicity of these moulds not only differ among different genera but also among different species.  Some fungi such as Aspergillus flavus, A. terreus, Penicillium griseofulvum, P.expansum, P.nordicum, P.verrucosum, Fusarium acuminatum, F.culmorum, F. graminearum, F.moniliforme, F.oxysporum, F.solani, F. tricinctum and Cheatomium globosum are known to produce more  one  type of mycotoxin which differ in their chemical structure and biological activity.

Abstract

Nematodes are non-segmented worms typically 50 µm in diameter and 1 mm in length. Those few species responsible for plant diseases have received a lot of attention, but far less is known about the majority of the nematode community that plays beneficial roles in soil. Nematode diversity tends to be greatest in ecosystems with the least disturbance. Species of Aphelenchoides, Ditylenchus spp, Helicotylenchus, Meloidogyne spp., Pratylenchus, Scutellonema  and Rotylenchulus are obnoxious plant parasitic nematode beside Heterodera and Globodera. Soil temperature, soil structure, soil pH, soil moisture and soil texture play major role in movement of nematode, infestation and completion of life cycle under abiotic and biotic stresses.

Abstract

Trichoderma species play a vital role in the management of plant diseases in association with different commercial bioformutlations of the fungus. Its role as a successful pollution free environment and friendly mechanism of action has been highly exploited. The diversity of species based on location, type of agri-land and association with different fauna  and flora has been instrumental in large upsurge of biological methods of Plant disease management. Pollution of agri-land soils with chemicals, heavy metals and development of resistance to diseases has become an emerging problem coupled with the high costs of Infrastructure. Thus, the interest in alternative biologically based systems is the need for bioremediation, bioecology and biocontrol with Trichoderma.

ABSTRACT

Decomposition of litter is a dynamic process. It regulates cycling of nutrients in ecosystem. The productivity of an ecosystem depends on the turnover of carbon and other nutrients. Microbes play an important role in releasing of minerals locked up in organic complexes. The release of nutrients, however, is regulated by various climatic factors. The microbial succession at different stages of degradation of litter is controlled by the litter quality and species composition and biological activity. The present paper reviews the status of litter production, decomposition, species diversity and Biological activities as affected by the climatic and edaphic factors in tropical ecosystem.

Keywords : Litter decomposition, microbes, species diversity, biological activities, edaphic factors, tropical ecosystem.

ABSTRACT

Microbes are integral part of the terrestrial ecosystem. Their function ranges from nutrients mineralization, stress alleviation to bioremediation in soils .There is a great possibility of using microbial inoculants as a biological tool for sustainable forestry and agriculture. This review gives an overview on the benefits of microbial technology and their contribution in development of green technology.

Keywords: Green technology, Microbes, AMF, PGPRs, Microbial consortium, Carbon sequestration.

Abstract

Microorganisms are potential tool for the production of large amount of potent and effective health care, food products and biofertilising agents. Recently, the marine microorganisms are considered as good sources of such products which may possess novel properties. There is a high scope for the exploration of marine microbes in order to search new product of economic importance from marine resources. Mangrove habitat is also part of marine habitat with the plant community having unique adaptation in their morpho- physiological and reproductive behavior. The high level of organic content in mangrove rhizosphre also leads to the colonization of degradative microorganisms and make them responsible for the creation of diverse and potential microbial community. Hence, mangroves are also considered as untapped resources of microbial metabolites and products. Several microorganisms including bacteria, fungi, algae, cyanobacteria, lichens are documented from mangrove habitats. These inhabitant microbes are the good source of secondary metabolites, therapeutic enzymes, food protective agents and mineral solubilisers. However, information on these aspects is very meager and thus the present review is an attempt to compile informations on the sources, properties and application of important microbes from mangrove ecosystems.

Abstract

Many airborne fungal spores are important as allergens, human and plant pathogens, in the bio-deterioration of stored materials like paper, leather, textile, paintings, historical monuments and spoilage of food stuffs. Surveys have been conducted to elucidate the magnitude of the problem. Indoor environment also plays an important role in the precipitation of allergic symptoms caused by fungal spores. The present review briefly highlights some of the qualitative investigations carried out on indoor environments like bakery, building, cold storage, cow shed, dormitory, educational institutions, garbage disposal plant, ware house, hospital, library, food grain godown, leather godown, house dust, poultry house, chick hatcheries, plastic industries and textile industries.

Abstract

Soil is the natural growth media for living plants and microbes, and rhizosphere is niche for a group of soil microorganisms inhabiting around the plant root zone. The warmed and humid agro-climatic conditions of the area aggravate A. flavus contamination and aflatoxin production in maize grains from field to storage. In this article aflatoxin contamination in maize, antagonistic activity of rhizosphere microbes against toxigenic A. flavus, through fungi, antagonistic activity of rhizosphere bacteria against toxigenic A. flavus, bacterization of stored maize seeds for aflatoxin control and inhibition of aflatoxin production in stored maize seed with rhizobacteria has been discussed in detail.

Abstract

Different algal taxa involved in the formation of lichen/s are presented. To-date 43 algal genera, comprising members of Cyanophyta, Chlorophyta and one genus each of families Phaeophyceae (brown algae) and Xanthophyceae (yellow-green algae) are recorded, based on personal observations coupled with literature. The various algal taxa forming different lichens belonging to various families is presented. The taxa Trebouxia de Puymaly and Trentepohlia Born. amongst green algae; Scytonema Ag. and Nostoc Vauch. Among blue-green algae are dominant genera involved in the formation of lichens. The yellow and brown algae are only of rare occurrence.

Abstract

In nature the roots of most of the plants are infected by fungi to form mycorrhizal associations, which play a central role in nutrient capture from the soil. These fungi are found in almost every terrestrial ecosystem; even in pioneer zones or very saline environments, and are reported to represent the second largest biomass component of many terrestrial ecosystems. Mycorrhizal associations are found in a broad range of habitats ranging from aquatic to deserts and alpine altitudes. In natural ecosystems mixed population of mycorrhizal fungi co-exist, with certain fungi becoming dominant in a particular patch and subsequently being replaced as environmental conditions change. Once this equilibrium is disturbed, the population dynamics is disrupted and a biomass may develop towards a few or even for one dominant fungus. Different species of mycorrhizae respond differently in response to the environmental conditions. In the present paper, all major types of mycorrhizal associations in different ecosystems are discussed.