eChapters

Definition
 
Radiation poisoning, also called “radiation sickness” or a “creeping dose” is a form of damage to organ tissue due to excessive exposure to radiation. The term is generally used to refer to acute problems caused by a large dosage of radiation in a short period, though this also has occurred with long term exposure to low level radiation. Many of the symptoms of radiation poisoning occur as ionizing radiation interferes with cell division.
 
The clinical name for “radiation sickness” is acute radiation syndrome. A short exposure can result in acute radiation syndrome; chronic radiation syndrome requires a prolonged high level of exposure. A chronic radiation syndrome does exist but is very uncommon;

Abstract

The aim is to review the potential health benefits of minor millet. There is in need to identify newer sources of nutraceuticals and other natural and nutritional materials with the desirable functional characteristics. They are an important staple food in India for people of low income groups. Minor millet is rich in several nutrients as well as non-nutrients such as phenols. Nutritionally, its importance is well recognised because of its high content of calcium (0.38%), dietary fiber (18%) and phenolic compounds (0.3-3%). Minor millets, one of the cereals are known for several health benefits including its polyphenol and dietary fiber contents. Health beneficial effects include anti-diabetic, anti-tumerogenic, atherosclerogenic effects, antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. The energy of minor millets is greater than other cereals and nearly equal to that of brown rice because the lipid content is generally higher (3 to 6%). This review deals with the nature of polyphenols and dietary fiber of minor millets and their role with respect to the health benefits associated with millet.

1. Which round of plucking done in tea plantation
   1. 10 – 15
   2. 20 – 25
   3. 45 – 50
   4. 30 – 40
2. The method of oil extraction from fresh coconut was developed by
   1. CFTRI
   2. IARI
   3. IIHR
   4. CPCRI
3. The fresh arecanut fruits are preserved in thick layer of made and this product referred to as
   1. Bura tamul
   2. Chali
   3. Clay preserving
   4. Mud preservation

Potato is fourth major food crop after rice, wheat and maize in the world. It produces the highest dry matter, well balanced protein and more calories/ unit area and time. Unlike other food crops, potato tubers contain vitamin-C (17 mg/100 g). It provides carbohydrates, minerals, fibre and a number of vitamin-B groups. Potato protein is comparable to that of milk and egg. Unlike European countries, in tropics and sub-tropics, the crop is of short duration and fits well in intensive cropping system. It can be grown in a wide range of climatic and soil conditions and tubers are available throughout the year. Tubers can be left un-harvested in the soil for some time and are also suitable for long distance transport and storage. Several products like chips, flakes, French-fries, finger chips, granule, disc, cubes and flour are made out of potato tubers

Origin and distribution

Potato is a native of tropical South America. Traditionally, it was adapted as a commercial food crop in temperate climate under long day conditions, mainly in Europe. It was introduced to India in 16^th or 17^th Century by Portuguese or the British. 

Introduction Since about 10,000 years ago, men and women have been rearing livestock and producing crops. Information about agricultural practices can be found in documents dating back over 3,000 years from ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, and China. Agricultural extension services have evolved and developed in many parts of the world to address agricultural systems’ unique challenges and requirements. These initiatives aimed to provide farmers with scientific knowledge, technological advancements, and improved farming practices to enhance agricultural productivity.

Introduction

In India 70 to 75 per cent of the indigenous cattle and buffaloes are designated as non-descript that is they do not come under any well defined breed. Among the animals of defined breed also, less than 5-10 per cent of the population can be considered as elite and used for the production of breeding stock. Average productivity of cross-bred and desi cows is 2141 kg/lactation & 634 kg /lactation, respectively, which is still very low. The average productivity of buffaloes is 1355 kg/lactation only.

Importance of rice in Konkan area is characterized by heavy rains of 100 mm per week or so over an extended period and contributes 42.9 % of total rice production in the Maharashtra State. Rice is the only suitable crop that can be grown under puddled soil conditions, i.e. with standing water over bunded fields. Tansplanting method of rice is commonly followed by most of the farmers in this region. Puddled rice is said to be of assistance in mitigating the effects of floods. The problem of weeds is minimal in puddled rice culture. Thus, rice serves as a livelihood crop for millions of small, and marginal farmers in Konkan who can afford only low-cost technologies. Even though the crop is robust and versatile, it has faced drawbacks in terms of low yield and reduction in acreage. In Konkan region of Maharshtra, there are two agro climatic zones viz., North Konkan coastal zone comprising three districts viz., Thane, Raigad and Greater Mumbai and South Konkan Coastal Zone comprising two districts viz., Ratnagiri and Sindhudurg. Ratnagiri district receives the highest rainfall of > 3500 mm while Thane district receives the lowest rainfall (2000-2500 mm) in this region. Sindhudurg and Raigad districts receives 3000-3500 and 2500-3000 mm rainfall, respectively.

Conservation agriculture (CA) has benefits to farmers in overcoming labor shortages associated with other tillage practices. With the introduction mechanized CA practices, farmers are able to finalize planting earlier, and can even free the equipment for service hire to neighbors. These CA equipment can reduce the delays in planting and also benefit neighbors who can hire this equipment and be able to plant within the first planting window, commonly associated with better yield gains. Smallholder farmers can also form groups to mobilize resources for equipment purchase to overcome the equipment cost problem. Local production of CA equipment for the smallholder agricultural sector has been almost non-existent prior to 2005.

INTRODUCTION

In spite of technological developments for the last few decades, Indian agriculture is still rain dependent. Extreme weather events such as drought in 2002, cold wave during 2002-03, heat wave in the year 2003, increased temperatures during rabi 2003-04 and 2004-05, deficit rainfall in many parts of the country during 2004 and excess rains in 2005 (100cm in Mumbai, floods in MP, Gujarat, Orissa, AP, Tamilnadu and Karnataka) could affect the food grain production considerably. The spatial and temporal changes in important weather parameters such as rainfall, temperature, wind, cloud cover, humidity, etc. would influence crop yields by affecting farmers’ decision in selection of cultivar, use of inputs, crop management practices, etc. These decisions significantly influence the aggregate agricultural output, which , in succession has an impact on the economy of the country as a whole. Thus, the timely and accurate weather based agro -advisories is the need of the hour for sustainable agricultural production.

Further, the quality of utility of agro-advisories can be improved through value addition to the agromet information including forecast and demonstration of economic benefits accrued due to the following of the advisories. Thus making farmers to adapt weather-based advisories for (i) Increasing the quality and quantity of produce, (ii) Efficient utilization of resources, (iii) Minimizing losses due to adverse weather, (iv) Effective utilization of favourable weather events, and (v) Reducing cost of cultivation to enhance profits.

Fruit production is gaining momentum in the country. With the production about 90.18 million tonnes of fruits from 6.30 million ha in 2015-16, India is the second largest producer of the fruits in the world after China. During the past three decades, international trade in fruits has seen a rapid expansion.The newer markets are now opening for Indian produce e.g. Japan and USA have opened the route for Indian mangoes. At domestic level, the increase in demand of fruits for consumption both in fresh and the processed form has been evident. The income and livelihood security from this sector are increasing. The government has also supported the horticulture sector particularly area expansion and productivity enhancement of fruits through technological interventions like drip irrigation, fertigation, emphasis on integrated nutrient management, production of high quality planting material etc. Selection of an ideal variety and availability of plant material from a reliable source is the basis for achieving high yield and quality uniform produce. Lack of clonal uniformity not only leads to the problems in crop management but also the differences in maturity may cause delay in commercial picking. A number of improved fruit crops’ varieties have been developed during past few years, which ranged from the high yielding to stress resistant to high quality produce. In fruits and plantation crops more than 150 high yielding varieties suitable for various purposes have been developed. A list of some popular cultivars and new cultivars in major fruit crops has been given here (Table 1).

An overwhelming proportion of plant material used for compounding herbal medicines and nutraceuticals is currently collected from the wild. With traditional health care systems gaining increasing popularity, the enormous amount of plant material extracted from the limited plant populations available in natural stands is a cause of justifiable alarm. The unscrupulous plunder of plant populations growing in the wild is pushing increasing number of important species to the endangered category and many to the verge of extinction. Also, unethical practices like adulteration and storage of medicinal plants under unacceptable conditions are rampant. All this is happening, when the consumer is becoming increasingly quality conscious and is demanding traceability of source material used for formulations and adherence to good practices for the entire chain of manufacturing process for herbal drugs and plant-based nutraceuticals. Clearly, solution to this problem lies in replacing the ‘collection from the wild ’ paradigm to ‘production by cultivation ’. An essential prerequisite for meeting this objective is a well thought out research agenda which not only tackles productivity enhancement goals for the targeted plant species but also addresses the validity of the entrenched notion among healers who use the traditional medical systems, that only material collected from the wild produces the desired results. The reason advanced in support of this argument is that phytomedicines are derived from plant populations growing in the wild under organic conditions and under their natural rhizosphere and rhizoplane. The associated soil-microbial complexes, and a variety of endophytic microorganisms, may be the initiators or modifiers of the production and expression of medicinal properties.

It also so happens that a majority of medicinal plants are shade loving, C4 types and will necessarily require their species-specific ambient environment for elicitation of the medicinally relevant moities.

1. INTRODUCTION

Fruit production is not only the growing of fruit plants but it is an outcome of well planned orcharding system. The designing of an orchard for successful fruit production depends upon various physical as well as climatic conditions and resources which help in building up of fruit growing systems. An orchard is a long term investment, mistakes committed at initial stage of planning, selection of site and soil reduces the return greatly from investment, beside wastage of time and energy. Thus, a faultless planning with utmost care and attention become quite imperative while planning a new orchard.

2. PLANNING OF ORCHARD

Before undertaking the actual planting of fruit trees, it is advisable to plan the complete process/steps, which will enable the grower to provide not only the most economic orchard management, but also for the economic layout and location of roads, drains, irrigation channels, hedges and wind breaks. For establishing an orchard of fruits, the major consideration must be given to four important aspects like climate, site or location selection, soil condition and basic facilities (economic and market consideration).

Contemporary tilapia cultivation is aligned with the principles of circular bioeconomy, aiming to minimize resource inputs while maximizing waste and effluent reuse. This strategy involves closing the loops of various economic and ecological resources as well as decentralizing the production systems for localized production and consumption. Growing concerns about disease outbreaks along with market demands for environmentally responsible and sustainable aquaculture practices are propelling a transformative shift. This shift is characterized by structural advancements in water and effluent reuse through closed-loop recirculation systems that repurpose waste as valuable nutrients. Today one of the pivotal trends in tilapia farming is the adoption of circular bio-economy principles which is exemplified by diverse recirculation systems including Biofloc Technology (BFT), Partitioned Aquaculture Systems (PASs), Recirculatory Aquaculture Systems (RAS), bio RAS, , In Pond Recirculation Systems (IPRS) and Integrated Multitrophic Aquaculture (IMTA). The trajectory of tilapia culture often aligns with the trajectory of urban agriculture as well as waste fermentation. Low-demand water recirculation systems are poised to spearhead a disruption in industries across five key sectors (material, information, energy, transport, and food/ health) that rely heavily on extraction. This transformation is driving the transition towards a more sustainable and localized model.

Introduction
• The main objective of food preservation is to avoid food spoilage • So, the underlying principle behind all the meat preservation technique is providing adverse conditions for the growth and survival of the harmful microbials and such adverse conditions may be provided in the from of heat, cold, high level of salt, increasing acidity or removal of water/ oxygen
• Meat can be preserved by many techniques such as drying, heating, low temperature, curing, addition of chemicals or by application of irradiation and high pressure
• Addition of chemical i.e. chemical preservation which is accomplished by smoking is generally done after salting and pickling of meat
Physical changes in stored raw meat
1. Shrinkage
2. Sweating
3. Bloom loss

The North East region represents eight states namely Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, Nagaland and Sikkim consisting 7.79% of the Indian national geographical area. The altitude difference (50m-7000m) coupled with varied physio- geographic and agroclimatic conditions; varying intensity of rainfall (800-12000 mm) and topography harbour various vegetation types of tropical, temperate and alpines zones. In India, there are about 800 plant species used as food plants chiefly  by the tribal population (Singh and Arora, 1978). Out of these about 300 species are prevalent in the northeastern region (Khrasati, 1973, Joseph and Murti, 1981, Singh et al. 1981).

Tribals of various ethnic groups like Khasi, Garo, Monpas, Karbis, Jaintia, Naga, Kuki, Manipuri, Mizo, Chakma, Dafla, Adi, Mishing, Apatani and others are predominant in the various habitats of hilly regions also used to practice “Jhumming” or shifting cultivation. Most of wild fruits are used  in day to day diets of tribal people of the region and are often sold in the local markets.

Indian horticulture has made a rapid stride, converting the country from food scarce to self sufficiency. The horticulture, which includes fruits, vegetables, spices, flowers and medicinal and aromatic plants, has proved beyond doubt its potentiality for gainful diversification. One of the significant developments is that horticulture has moved from rural confine to commercial production, and this changing scenario has encouraged private sector investment in production system management. Since the growing of fruit crops is highly rewarding to the farmers in terms of returns per unit area, the horticulture sector is expected to contribute significantly for the food and nutritional security, employment opportunity and poverty alleviation.

In recent past, several innovations and new initiatives have been made both in research and development for improving production, productivity, quality and marketing and to identify critical gaps in various emerging areas in fruits & horticulture technology. Some of the brief details are discussed on under:

High yielding superior fruit varieties for commercial cultivation

Mango: The mango varieties have been developed as a national priority at IARI, which are highly popular amongst the fruit growers of India. The important features of these hybrids are summarized below:

1. Atropa belladonna contains which alkaloids is
   1. 1-hyoscyamine
   2. N-methyl-puridine
   3. Atropine
   4. Pyridine
2. Withania somnifera is commonly known in english
   1. Belladonna
   2. Liquorice
   3. Blue cherry
   4. Winter cherry
3. Botanical name of black nightshade is
   1. Solanum tarvum
   2. Solanum xanthocarpum
   3. Solanum nigrum
   4. Solanum viarum

Introduction

Brood Fish are the mature parent fish that are used in hatcheries for breeding purposes, they are mature enough to give sperm and egg, and their size is usually large. Generally, 2-3 years of old fishes weighing about 2-3 kg are used as brood fish. Brood fishes usually show gonadal maturity to give ovum or sperm and its management means the act of running and controlling brood f ishes. Broodstock nutrition is one of the most vital constituents for many cultured fish species. The changeable and erratic reproductive performance is an important limiting factor for the maturation, fecundity, and survival of larvae.

Clinical Symptoms • External haemorrhages

• Pale gills • Ascites

• Destruction of tissues in the kidney, spleen, and liver

• Excessive mucus secretion

• Skin hemorrhages with edema of the tissues

• Skin ulceration around the mouth and base of the fins

Causative Agent: Rhabdovirus

Host (Common sp.)

• Common carp

• Koi carp

• Crucian carp

• Silver carp

• Bighead carp

• Grass carp

• Goldfish