eChapters

Cholesterol is present in the diet of all people, and it can be absorbed slowly from the gastrointestinal tract into the intestinal lymph. It is highly fat soluble but only slightly soluble in water and is capable of forming esters with fatty acids.

The art in producing high-boiled sweets with satisfactory shelf life is manufacturing boilings which contain the minimum amount of residual moisture and a satisfactory balance between cane or beet sugar, and glucose syrup or invert sugar syrup. The main physical change during the storage of high-boiled sweets is the formation of small crystals in the confection, usually referred to as graining, due to recrystallisation of sucrose. These spoil the appearance and cause an unpleasant roughness on the tongue.

For high-boiled sweets it is impossible, using the normal proportions of cane or beet sugar (sucrose) and glucose syrup, to obtain a product of 97% solids content, which is not supersaturated with respect to sucrose.

In practice, however, one-and-a-half parts of sugar (sucrose) to one part of forty-two DE glucose syrup will produce a high-boiled sweet stable against graining.

High Density Orcharding

India is the second largest producer of the fruits (41.5 million tones) in the world. Still the productivity of almost all the fruits in India is very low (12 tones /ha) as compared to other fruit growing countries of the world. It is a major cause of concern to our scientists, extension personnel and orchardists. Many reasons may be attributed to the low productivity and to solve this problem our scientists have to develop high yielding varieties/hybrids, resistant to the biotic and abiotic stresses and develop better agro-techniques for realizing the maximum potential of the fruit cultivation in India. Though, we have achieved this distinction, but the per capita consumption of the fruits in our country is still 80 g/day due to our huge population, which is far below from the recommendation of 120g/capita/day.

The high density planting (HDP) in fruit crops is one of the new concepts of increasing the productivity without affecting the quality of fruits. The concept of high density planting was pioneered in temperate fruits in Europe at the end of 1960, since then there is rise in establishment of commercial high density orchards throughout the world. Initially HDP was followed mostly in temperate fruits e.g., apple. HDP is defined as a method of planting wherein more numbers of plants are planted per unit area as compared to conventional planting density or it is a modern method of fruit cultivation involving planting of fruit trees densely, allowing small or dwarf trees with modified canopy for better light interception and distribution and ease of mechanised field operations. It is one of the important methods to achieve high productivity per unit area both in short duration and perennial fruit crops.

Now-a-days, new orchards of fruits are planted in this system with a view to produce higher fruit yield and increased profitably. In addition, there is also a need to feed the growing population and provide them nutritional security and land resources are shrinking simultaneously due to the industrialization, urbanization etc., hence it is required to develop the modern facilities to compete with the developed nation. The success of this technology in most of the fruit crops is dependent on the use of methods to control shoot growth so as to maximize light interception. The main aim of HDP is to obtain the twin prerequisites of productivity by maintaining a balance between vegetative and reproductive growth without sacrificing plant health and fruit quality.

With the culmination of green revolution, the yield in agriculture is almost static with the use of even great deal of inputs and resources with appearing decadence in nature. The agriculture, if continuous on with same trend, will no longer productive and sustainable. Heterogenity being vested with best survival and sustenance, attempt is underway towards crop diversification deploying remunerative crops and techniques so as to keep pace with rising demand of mankind. Added to this, dwindling land : man ratio (0.13 ha during 1990s), harvesting more return from a unit area of land, disguised unemployment, improper availability of fruits and vegetables (40 g and 120 g respectively as against 120 g and 280 g for fruits and vegetables, respectively), generating employment (143 man-days/ha in cereals, 860 man-days/ha in fruit production and 1000-2500 man-days/ha in cultural intensive fruit crops), are major concerns for high density planting (HDP). It is a holistic production system which helps in promoting and preserving dynamic agro-ecosystem. HDP is also an aid to biodiversity, biological cycles and organic farming. As an alternative to raise production and productivity especially to compete global trade, HDP is worth adoption.

India is regarded as a horticulture paradise due to growing of tropical, subtropical and temperate fruit crops in varied soil and climatic conditions. However, increasing pressure on land owing to diversion of orchard lands to various other obvious reasons as well as rising energy and land-costs, together with mounting demand for fruits have made HDP imperative to achieve higher productivity from limited space.

There is a shift in farmers’ perception from production to productivity and profitability, which can be achieved through high density planting. India is the second largest producer of fruits in the world. However, the average productivity of various fruit crops in the country is quite less. Low productivity can be attributed to many reasons such as old and senile orchards, lack of canopy management practices, planting of poor yielding varieties, low or no adoption of recommended package of practices by the farmer leading to poor orchard management, etc.

ABSTRACT

The mass production of orchids through in vitro approach is now practising on a commercial scale. But, in most cases, it is being done via an intermediate callus which may lead to variability in the progenies. A study was made to standardize a protocol for rapid mericloning of tropical orchid dendrobium cv. sonia from the shoot tip explant without an intermediate callus so as to produce true to type progenies. The efficiency of production of clones through agar gelled medium and shake cultures were compared. The shoot tip explants produced an average of 6-8 multiple shoots on agar gelled (0.8% w/v) MS medium containing 3% sucrose as carbon source supplemented with a hormonal combination of 0.75 mg l^-1 NAA and 2.5 mg l^-1 KIN without an intervening callus, within a period of 3 - 4 months. When the shoot tip explants were cultured in agitated ( 80 - 100 rpm) liquid Vacin and Went ( VW) medium supplemented with 3% sucrose, 2.0 - 2.5 mg l^-1 BA and 0.5 - 1.0 mg l^-1 NAA could induce a large number of protocorms within a period of two weeks. Agitated liquid MS medium supplemented with 0.5 mg l ^-1 IBA and 2 mg l^-1 BA or 0.5 mg l ^-1 2,4 - D, 0.5 mg l^-1 GA₂ and 3.0 mg l^-1 BA was identified as the rapid multiplication medium of the protocorms. About 60 - 80 protocorms could be produced from a single protocorm within a period of 3 weeks. Transfer of these protocorms to agar gelled (0.8%w/v) MS medium containing 2% sucrose supplemented with 20 - 25% coconut milk (CM) was found ideal for plantlet formation of size 1.0 - 1.5 cm within a period of three weeks. Sub culturing of the plantlets to the same medium resulted in rapid profuse rooting. Transfering the rooted plants into bottles containing sterile coconut husk provided with half MS medium without sucrose and hormones was sufficient for in vitro hardening. By this two stage culturing technique, about 50 - 60 true to type clones can be produced from a single shoot apex within a period of 3 months.

ABSTRACT

Aloe vera is one of the oldest known therapeutic herb belongs to the family Liliaceae commonly known as guar patta. Gel from fleshy leaves of Aloe vera is rich in 200 nutrients which are used in healing the burns, wounds, gastric ulcers, treatment of diabetes and also used in normal functioning of the liver. Aloe vera is a desert plant which needs water in very less quantity. As Aloe vera is second in ranking in drug production in the world. Government of India is also trying to promote Aloe vera as a crop in dry and semi dry regions of India. As it needs very less and cheaper inputs, Aloe farming promises higher economic gains to farmers. But as the plant grows vegetatively the quality planting material is a problem. Tissue culture provides an opportunity in production of quality seedlings. To optimize the regeneration system in Aloe vera, MS based media were tried to induce shoot formation in cultured shoot tip explants. 6-10 cm long offshoots were collected. Shoot tip explants were cut vertically after sterilization in laminar hood and cultured on MS basal media supplemented with various growth regulators. A total of 23 media were tried for shoot regeneration. All the cultures were incubated under fluorescent light. Different concentrations of BAP (2, 5, 10 mg/l) were used and MS medium with 2 mg/l or 5 mg/l BAP exhibited similar response while BAP at 10 mg/l showed poor shoot formation. TDZ when used at 1 mg/l concentration improved percent shoot formation marginally. Multiple shoots were observed on TDZ containing medium and BAP (2.0 mg/l) supplemented medium in 12-15 days. Multiple shoots were obtained in 12 days when 2 mg/l BAP was added along with 0.18 mg/l IAA. The number of multiple shoots ranged from 4 -15 per explant. The regenerated plants developed roots on MS medium supplemented with 0.1mg/l NAA.

High Humidity Hot Air Impingement Blanching (HHAIB) is a modern blanching technology developed to overcome several limitations associated with conventional blanching. This chapter introduces HHAIB as a pretreatment used before drying, freezing, canning and frying, particularly for fruits and vegetables. It explains the underlying principle of high-humidity hot-air impingement and its effects on heat and mass transfer. The chapter discusses applications in pre-dehydration treatment, colour preservation, texture and structural integrity and enzyme inactivation. Comparative analysis with conventional blanching methods highlights its potential advantages in drying efficiency, quality retention and energy utilization, making HHAIB an important emerging technology for modern food processing.

Abstract

The future food grain demand in India is projected to increase beyond 300 million tons by 2025. There are only two ways to meet the increasing food and other agricultural demands of the country’s rising population either expanding the net area under cultivation or intensifying cropping over the existing area. The net sown area of the country has risen by about 20 per cent since independence and has reached a point where it is not possible to make any appreciable increase. The option left is go for high cropping intensity for ahead of present of 137%. A major share of this increase is likely to come from increasing the number of crops produced per year on a given land using improved crop cultivars. Research indicates that maximum intensity of 400-500% is possible provided situation fulfills the requisite factors such as irrigation facilities, short duration varieties, mechanization and agrochemicals are available. The objective of increasing the cropping intensity will be achieved only by the inclusion of short duration varieties of cereals, identification of pulses and oilseed crops that can fit well in the cropping systems of different agro-ecologies that will ultimately improve crop productivity per unit of land making the efficient utilization of resources and will meet the objectives of crop diversification leading to food and economic security of the nation.

Various products of karanj (Pongamia glabra) are utilized for industrial, health and animal agricultural application in the Indian subcontinent. Despite a rich source of protein (CP 28 —34 %), karanj (honge) cake is found to be slightly bitter in taste and toxic owing to the presence of furanoflavonoid (Karanjin), restricting its safe inclusion in the livestock diets. Though a non polar solvent, soxhlet extraction of karanj seed cake with petroleum ether/ acetone drastically reduces karanjin content. The residual cake left after solvent extraction is proved to be safe as animal feed supplement.

Estimation of karanjin

The samples can be analysed for the toxin, karanjin as per the method of Prabhu et al. (2002).

Extraction of Karanjin from Raw and Processed Cake

Exactly 25 gm of ground and thoroughly mixed sample is weighed and transferred into the thimble and extracted for 12h using 200ml of freshly distilled methanol as solvent. Methanol extract is then cooled and filtered into preweighted round bottom flask using Whatman No.1 filter paper.The excess methanol is distilled off under vacuum. The flask containing the extract is weighed again to obtain the weight of extract by subtracting the empty flask’s weight. Sufficient amount of moisture free extract is transferred into vials for further analysis.

High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was developed during late 1960s and early 1970s. Today it is a widely accepted separation technique for both sample analysis and purification in a variety of areas. HPLC, basically a highly improved form of column chromatography and popularly known as liquid chromatography, like other forms of chromatography, whether paper, thin layer or gas chromatography, needs two essential components, the stationary and the mobile phase. It has the unique ability to separate and quantitate residues of polar, non volatile and heat labile chemical compounds. HPLC uses high pressure pumps up to 400 atmospheres that makes it much faster, short and narrow columns packed with micro particulate phase and a detector. To affect a separation, mixture to be analysed is dissolved in a solvent (ideally this solvent is identical to mobile phase) and then forced to flow through analytical column along with mobile phase. In the column the constituents of mixture get resolved and are detected with a suitable detector by a proper choice of column, mobile phase and detector. HPLC is a technique having high degree of versatility. There are several excellent texts published over the last decade which may be consulted for general information on the instrumentation in liquid chromatography

In the present era, residue analyst is exposed to array of analytical choice and as per International regualtions, presence of pesticide residues in environmental components and food commodities are becoming more stringent.Generally, multiresidue methods are based on GC equipped with selective detection either electron capture detector, nitrogen phosphorous detector, flame ionization detector etc. One most widely applied technique in pesticide residue analysis is HPLC, equipped with different detectors. Another up-datemethod for confirmation is gas chromatography-mass spectrometry(GCMS)and HPLC-MS applyingparticlebeam or thermo sprayionisationtechnique. Recently one more analytical technique which has gained ground in the field of pesticide residue analysis, is high performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC).The criteria of good analytical technique like simple, rapid, flexible, versatile, inexpensive, easily documented and validated has been the inherent advantage of HPTLC. Strictly speaking, HPTLC is not different in principleor application from conventional TLC, but due to improvements in materials, its effectiveness has also enhanced.The technique has a potential to operate upto femtogramlevel. HPTLC is a sophisticated and automated form of TLC. It is a technique which can generate about 5000 or more theoretical plates. The high performance in TLC is achieved by optimized plate coating materials, by improved sample application techniques, and by developing newmethods for the development of mobile phase. Thus HPTLC is an instrumental approach at different stages of TLC. A flow chart for HPLC principle is shown in Figure 8.1. The principle of separation is based on adsorption and this leads to easyseparationof isomers, includingchiralcompounds.Main difference between HPTLC and TLC is given in Table 8.1

High pressure (or performance) liquid chromatography (HPLC) is more versatile than GC since it is not limited to volatile compounds. The choice of mobile and stationary phases is wider. HPLC has high resolving power, separations are speedier, quantifications are more precise and it is in general, more reproducible. Liquid chromatography basically involves separation of components due to differences in the equilibrium distribution of sample components between the mobile (liquid) and stationary phases.

1. Introduction

Fruit products have their unique identities having large content of micronutrients, polyphenols, vitamins, flavonoids and other nutritional compounds. Characteristic appearance and flavors distinguish among various fruit based products like juice, puree, jam, jelly, squash and other several varieties. Main concern of this fruit processing industry is the stability of the products throughout the post processing storage. Thermal treatment as mean of preservation of these products is the common process implemented so far. It ensures the safety of the product but lacks in retaining the nutritional intact that like of fresh fruit. Today’s consumer demand for minimally processed fruit products and “natural” fruit products tend to think of alternative thermal processing.

High pressure processing (HPP), a relatively new concept compared to conventional thermal processing, also sometimes known as high hydrostatic pressure (HHP), or ultra high pressure (UHP) processing, is a non-thermal food processing method that subjects liquid or solid foods, with or without packaging, to pressures ranging between 50 and 1000 MPa. HPP has already been established itself as an alternative to thermal processing. In food processing it is of great interest due to its ability to inactivate food borne microorganisms and enzymes, at low temperature, without the need for chemical preservatives and it is less detrimental than thermal processes to low molecular weight food compounds such as flavoring agents, pigments, vitamins, etc., as covalent bonds are not affected by pressure. Pressure-treated foods have sensory properties similar to fresh products, which is a major advantage in fruit processing as it matches consumer demand for healthy, nutritious and ‘‘natural’’ products. HPP of fruit products offers the chance of producing food of high quality, greater safety and increased shelf life (Hayashi 1989; Gould 1996; Butz and Tauscher 1998).

4.1 Introduction

The purpose of processing the food is to make it safe and healthy for human consumption. The term food processing refers technologically anything, which transforms raw ingredients into consumer ready products, with the aim of stabilizing food products by preventing or reducing deteriorative changes in quality. The objective of food manufacturers is to develop, modify and employ those processing technologies that retain or create desirable sensory qualities in food and eliminate or reduce undesirable changes due to processing.

The purpose of food processing is to increase the shelf life of food before spoiling (preservation); to remove, destroy or inhibit pathogens and toxins (food safety); to change flavor, texture, aroma, color or form (variety); to reduce preparation times and make food more portable (convenience); to restore and/or raise nutrient levels in food (nutrition).The various food processing methods used extensively in food industry include physical (high temperature, freezing, chilling, dehydration, packaging), chemical (control of storage gases, reduction of water activity, pH, addition of chemical additives or spices) preservation methods.

Traditionally, food preservation has been associated with thermal treatments alone or in combination with biochemical or chemical methods. For example, the thermal processing of milk is done various thermal treatments viz. at 63^oC for 30 min for low temperature long time (LTLT), 72^oC for 15 seconds for high temperature short time (HTST) pasteurisations and up to 140^oC for a few seconds for ultra high temperature (UHT) treatment. However, such thermal treatments effectively reduce level of microorganisms but in long-term preservation, it may lead to losses of desired organoleptic attributes and destruction of temperature liable nutrients and vitamins. The limitations involved with thermal processing has been overcome by employing chemical preservation, cool chain management and process hygiene in the formulation and production of food products.

Food and nutrition are necessary for all living beings to maintain good health[1]. Thermal treatment is commonly used for preservation of food. Although application of thermal treatment can ensure food safety, it may cause undesirable changes in the nutritional, sensory and functional properties of food products[2]. Due to growing awareness of connection between the diet and the health, there is an increase in demands for fresh-like, palatable, additive-free and microbiologically safe food products with high nutritional value and quality[3].

Abstract

High Tech interventions begin with acute desire and demand for high productivity and profit from Agricultural activity. High Tech cultivation implies judicious use of space, time and inputs; nothing more and nothing less. It is interesting to note that the different components that were listed in each case above are known to scientists and extension workers and to a lesser extent to farmers also. Piecing them together to formulate a practise is the novel thing. The major components of high tech cultivation assume the highest priority by virtue of the fact that the country has shortage for water and fertilizer and both are essential for any type of crops. Different components of high tech intervention can be used for growing crops, also for the growers to enhance production and quality .High tech intervention includes a number of components like- uniform virus free planting material, drip fertigation technology, assistance to post harvest management, and training and guidance to farmers, value addition opportunity, technical support to the farmers etc. These high tech interventions are introduced to other crops- a host of vegetables, fruits like Pomegranate, Cashew and Guava, and agricultural crops like, Cotton, Pulses, Sugarcane, and even cereals like, maize, wheat and rice. Another important aspect of such interventions is that only if concomitant interventions in marketing of produce are made, the whole exercise would bring profit to the farmers.

ABSTRACT

Commercial propagation using tissue culture techniques started in seventies for orchids in USA. Since then, the science and technology of tissue culture have advanced particularly after the development of the most widely used medium by Murashighe and Skoog (1972). The science has led to the development of the fascinating area of gene transfer. Today, micropropagation protocols are available for almost all horticultural crops. But, there are certain grey areas where research need to be intensified to solve the problems confronting certain difficult to propagate species belonging to plantation and spice sectors. The major area that needs to be addressed is recalcitrance.

Introduction

Raising milk and meat production are long-standing global issues. Researchers are learning that present breeding efforts won't be sufficient to meet anticipated future food demands given the current climate scenario. The animals that influence the overall yield of the field must be screened as soon as possible. In order to build more successful modern breeding programmes, high-throughput phenotyping is currently being included into conventional breeding operations. Despite the public accessibility of their genetic information online, there is still a lack of phenotypic data on the genomes of various animal breeds because environmental factors make it more difficult to define phenotypes and increase the likelihood of measurement error (Rahaman et al., 2015). Genomic selection (GS) is a strategy that predicts the genomic estimated breeding values of lines in a breeding population using information from genome-wide markers (Meuwissen et al., 2001). When compared to other conventional methods like marker-assisted selection (MAS), genomic selection has some inherent advantages. These include boosting genetic gain by reducing breeding cycles and acquiring minor effect loci based on markers dispersed throughout the entire target genome. Reliable phenotypes and genotyping are both necessary for the training of accurate prediction models for genomic selection. Phenotyping is regarded as a significant factor restricting genetic improvements in animal breeding due to high labour and time expenditures. Traditional approaches of phenotyping are prohibitively expensive, time-consuming, and slow.