eChapters

Many horticulture schemes have been launched by the Government. The main aim is to expand the area under horticulture with better productivity. These ambitious schemes are as follows.

A. Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH): Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH) is a centrally sponsored scheme from 1st April 2014 for the holistic growth of the horticulture sector covering fruits, vegetables, root and tuber crops, mushrooms, spices, flowers, aromatic plants, coconut, cashew, cocoa and bamboo. Under MIDH, Government of India (GOI) contributes 60% of total outlay for developmental programmes in all the states except states in North East and Himalayas, 40% share is contributed by state governments.

Spotted boll  worms/ Shoot and fruit borer: Earias vitella (=E.fabia), E. insulana: Noctuidae

This is a pest on cotton, bhendi, hibiscus, holly hock and other malvaceous vegetables. Moths lay eggs singly in leaf axils, bracts and leaf veins and on under surface. Larvae bore into tender shoots, buds, flowers and fruits and feed on internal contents.  Damage results in drooping of shoots and shedding of buds and flowers. The infested fruits have bore holes, are deformed and become unfit for consumption.  Bore holes are plugged with excreta.

Abstract

Infertility in Livestock is a matter of great concern Anoestrous and repeat breeding in buffalo and bovines are two of the most serious reproductive problems affecting 30-40% of the total cattles and buffalo population on a conservative estimate our country is loosing 20-30 million tonnes of milk due to anestrus and repeat breading in cattle and buffaloes translating to a loss of Rs 40-50,000 crores annually. The used weak symptoms of estrus in the normal breeding season (September to February) become ever weaker during the hot month of summer. The incidences of silent heat is the lowest in December while the break is seen in the hot summer month of April. Summer infertility is also noticedin goat. During summer farmer experience a variety of reproductive problems such as an estrus extended weaning to eastern interiors, poor conception rates, higher unbryo mortality rates and low barrowing rates. There are strategies to ameliorate heat stress induced fertility problems and gonadotropin treatment can prevent seasonal infertility. There is a need to implement several techniques at the field level combining the glance of any detrimental impact on health and environment

Plants can synthesize all the 20 amino acids, which include essential and non-essential amino acids. They can be degraded by removal of the amino group and conversion of the remaining skeleton to useful metabolic intermediates which participate in the synthesis of glucose and other ketone bodies.
 
Biosynthesis of amino acids
 
The biosyntheses of amino acids have an important feature. Their carbon skeletons come from intermediates from glycolysis, pentose phosphate pathway and citric acid cycle etc. The biosynthetic pathways depend on the intermediates from which they are derived. The primary amino group normally comes from the transamination of glutamate. Glutamine synthetase is a central control point in nitrogen metabolism, since glutamine is the amino group donor in the formation of many biosynthetic products as well as being a storage form of ammonia. Glutamate is the precursor of proline, ornithine, and arginine. Serine, cysteine, and glycine are derived from 3-phosphoglycerate. Glycine is synthesized from serine by removing CH2OH group. Tyrosine is synthesized from phenylalanine. Asparagine and glutamine are amides that are synthesized from aspartate and glutamate.

Amino acids are biologically important organic compounds composed of amine (-NH₂) and carboxylic acid (-COOH) functional groups, along with a side-chain specific to each amino acid. The key elements of an amino acid are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, though other elements are found in the side-chains of certain amino acids. About 500 amino acids are known and can be classified in many ways. They can be classified according to the core structural functional groups’ locations as alpha- (?-), beta- (β), gamma- (?), or delta- (δ-) amino acids; other categories relate to polarity, pH level, and side-chain group type (aliphatic, acrylic, aromatic, containing hydroxyl or sulphur, etc.). In the form of proteins, amino acids comprise the second-largest component (water is the largest) of human muscles, cells and other tissues. Outside proteins, amino acids perform critical roles in processes such as neurotransmitter transport and biosynthesis. Amino acids having both the amine and the carboxylic acid groups attached to the first (alpha-) carbon atom have particular importance in biochemistry. They are known as 2-, alpha-, or ?-amino acids (generic formula H₂NCHRCOOH in most cases where R is an organic substituent known as a “side-chain”); often the term “amino acid” is used to refer specifically to these. They include the 22 proteinogenic (“protein-building”) amino acids, which combine into peptide chains (“polypeptides”) to form the building-blocks of a vast array of proteins. These are all L-stereoisomers (“left-handed” isomers), although a few D-amino acids (“right-handed”) occur in bacterial envelopes and some antibiotics. Twenty of the proteinogenic amino acids are encoded directly by triplet codons in the genetic code and are known as “standard” amino acids. The other two (“non-standard” or “non-canonical”) are pyrrolysine (found in methanogenic organisms and other eukaryotes) and selenocysteine (present in many noneukaryotes as well as most eukaryotes). For example, 25 human proteins include selenocysteine (Sec) in their primary structure, and the structurally characterized enzymes (selenoenzymes) employ Sec as the catalytic moiety in their active sites. Pyrrolysine and selenocysteine are encoded via variant codons; for example, selenocysteine is encoded by stop codon and SECIS element. Codon–tRNA combinations not found in nature can also be used to “expand” the genetic code and create novel proteins known as alloproteins incorporating non-proteinogenic amino acids.

The word protein was first coined in 1838 to emphasize the importance of this class of molecules. The word is derived from the Greek word proteios which means “of the first - rank”. Proteins are polymers/macro molecules made up of several amino acids. When there are more than 50 amino acids in a chain, the polypeptide is normally called a protein. Each protein in the cells of living beings has a unique sequence of amino acids that determines its biological function. The proteins are folded into specific defined structures, which are maintained by large number of relatively weak bonds. The three dimensional structure is well defined and suited to it’s specific function.

Amino acids are essential components of all living cells as building blocks of proteins. They are also metabolically active and supply substrates for many other biochemical reactions. In a bacterial cell, about 0.4% of the dry weight is amino acids. The amino units in other living systems varies according to species, age and part of the body.

Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. They occur in all living plant cells as constituents of proteins and as free acids or amides. More than 200 naturally occurring amino acids have been identified in higher plants. Around 20 different amino acids have been observed to be incorporated into proteins. They have two functional groups, an amino group (-NH2) and a carboxylic group(-COOH). Both these groups are attached to the a carbon atom only. Amino acids with this structure are called a amino acids or 2-aminoacids. The unique characteristics of the 20 amino acids are due to the side chain (R), which can be an alkyl, hydroxyl, thiol, amino, sulphide, aromatic, or heterocyclic group.

Amino acids have the general formula, R-CH(NH₂)-COOH. The R represents a side chain. If R=H, the simplest amino acid glycine (NH₂ -CH₂ –COOH) results. Amino acids are alpha (a ) amino carboxylic acids. The carbon atom is tetrahedral in shape. The various groups attached to it are placed in different positions. Since the valence of the carbon atom is four, four groups can be attached to the carbon atom. Based on the groups attached to the carbon atom it may be of two types.

Amino acids are organic molecules made up of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), and nitrogen (N). However, sulfur (S) and selenium (Se) are also found in some cases. Amino acids are essential organic compounds that come together to create proteins, thus making them the fundamental building blocks of proteins. These biomolecules play vital roles in various biological and chemical processes within the human body and are essential for the growth and development of an individual.

Amino acids consist of an acidic group (-COOH), a basic group (-NH2 ), and a side chain (R) or a hydrogen (H) atom, all bonded to the carbon atom. The features of amino acids are due to the side chain because they differ only in their side chain. All amino acids have the same basic structure except proline, which has a cyclic structure.

Various forms of amino acids like alpha (α), beta (β), gamma (γ) or delta (σ) form are found. The position of the amino group (-NH2 ) determines the form of the amino acid, i.e., if the NH2 group is attached to the α-carbon, it is called α-amino acid; if β-carbon, it is called β-amino acid, and so on. Mostly, α-Amino acids are found as the numbering of amino acids is done from the carboxylic group (-COOH).

Botany: Emblica officinalis belonging to the family Euphorbiaceae commonly known as Amla or Indian Gooseberry or Nelli is an important crop with high medicinal value. The fruits have the richest source of vitamin-C (700 mg per 100 g of fruits) and is considered to be good liver tonic. The various preparations using Amla include Chyavanprash, Triphala churna, Brahma Rasayana and Madumegha churna. The fruit is valued as an antiscorbutic, diuretic, laxative, antibiotic and anti-dysentric. Phyllemblin, obtainedfrom fruit pulp has been found to have mild depressent action on central nervous system. It has good demand from the industries for the preparation of various health care products also like hair oil, dye, shampoo, face creams and tooth powder.

Soil: Light as well as medium heavy soils except purely sandy soil is ideal for amla cultivation. The tree is well adopted to dry regions and can also be grown in moderate alkaline soils.

Climate: It is a tropical plant. Annual rainfall of 630-800 mm is ideal for its growth. The young plant upto the age of 3 years should be protected from hot wind during May-June and from frost during winter months. The mature plants can tolerate freezing temperature as well as a high temperature upto 46^OC.

Varieties: The varieties recommended for cultivation are Banarasi, Chakaiya, Francis, NA-4 (Krishna) NA 5 (Kanchan), NA-6, NA-7, NA-10 and BSR-1 (Bhavanisagar).

Fish excrete Ammonia, is a byproduct from protein metabolism and bacteria break down organic waste such as discarded food, faeces, dead planktons, sewage, and so on. When ammonia is unionized form (NH3) is extremely dangerous; yet when ammonia ionized form (NH4 +) it is harmless; both forms are known as total ammonia. Fish suffering from ammonia toxicity often”become lethargic and frequently emerge near the surface gasping for oxygen. common effects of ammonia in the range >0.1mg/l include Gill damage, breakdown of mucous-producing membranes, “sub-lethal” effects like reduced growth, poor (FC) feed conversion, and reduced disease resistance at concentrations lower than lethal concentrations, osmoregulatory imbalance, and kidney failure.
Principle
When Ammonia react with alkaline Nessler reagent (K2HgI4 or 2KI + HgI2) it produces a yellowish-brown coloured compound. Pretreatment with ZnSO4 and NaOH precipitates Ca, Mg, Fe and sulphide, which form turbidity and apparent colour. Addition of ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid, EDTA (before nessler’s reagent) or Rochelle salt solution prevents precipitation of residual Ca and Mg in presence of the alkaline Nesslers’s reagent.

DNA and RNA are the carriers of genetic information in all the living organisms. The study and analysis of the genetic code can provide information that can be used in clinical diagnostics, drug discovery, genetic engineering and forensic sciences. Hence there is need to understand the techniques in isolation of DNA and RNA followed by their amplification and sequencing.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a laboratory technique, developed by Kary Mullis in the 1980s, used in molecular biology to amplify and replicate a specific segment of the DNA (Mullis, 1990). This reaction in performed in a thermal cycler, involving three main steps: denaturation, annealing and extension.

Principle: PCR is based on the principle of selectively amplifying a specific region of DNA through a series of temperature-controlled cycles. The key components involved in PCR include the target DNA sequence, oligonucleotide primers, DNA polymerase enzyme (Taq DNA polymerase), deoxyribonucleotide triphosphate (dNTPs) (A, T, G, and C), Mg2+ and a thermal cycler apparatus. Initially, the double-stranded DNA is split into single strands under high temperature of 90-95 0C known as the denaturation step. It is followed by cooling the solution to a temperature that allows proper attachment of the oligonucleotide primers to its complementary sites in the strands, known as the annealing step.

Introduction

The AFLP amplified fragment polymorphism also known as selective restriction fragment amplification (SRFA) technique is used to visualize hundreds of amplified DNA restriction fragments simultaneously. The AFLP band patterns, or fingerprints, can be used for many purposes, such as monitoring the identity of an isolate or the degree of similarity among isolates. Polymorphisms in band patterns map to specific loci, allowing the individuals to be genotyped or differentiated based on the alleles they carry. produces highly complex DNA profiles by arbitrary amplification of restriction fragments ligated to double-stranded adaptors with hemi-specific primers harboring adaptor-complementary 5' termini.The technique has been widely used in the construction of genetic maps containing high densities of DNA marker loci.

The AFLP protocol amplifies restriction fragments obtained by endonuclease digestion of target DNA using “universal” AFLP primers complementary to the restriction site and adapter sequence. However, not all restriction fragments are amplified because AFLP primers also contain selective nucleotides at the 3' termini that extend into the amplified restriction fragments. These arbitrary terminal sequences result in the amplification of only a small subset of possible restriction fragments. The number of amplified fragments can therefore be “tailored” by extending the number of arbitrary nucleotides added to the primer termini. Alternatively, the use of endonuclease combinations that vary in their restriction frequency can also be used to tune the number of amplicons. Generally, the abundant restriction fragments produced from complex genomes require of AFLP primers with longer selective regions. Conversely, analysis of small genomes require of only few arbitrary nucleotides added at the primer 3' termini. The resulting AFLP fingerprints are usually a rich source of DNA polymorphisms that can be used in mapping and general fingerprinting endeavors.

Introduction

The AFLP amplified fragment polymorphism also known as selective restriction fragment amplification (SRFA) technique is used to visualize hundreds of amplified DNA restriction fragments simultaneously. The AFLP band patterns, or fingerprints, can be used for many purposes, such as monitoring the identity of an isolate or the degree of similarity among isolates. Polymorphisms in band patterns map to specific loci, allowing the individuals to be genotyped or differentiated based on the alleles they carry. produces highly complex DNA profiles by arbitrary amplification of restriction fragments ligated to double-stranded adaptors with hemi-specific primers harboring adaptor-complementary 5' termini.The technique has been widely used in the construction of genetic maps containing high densities of DNA marker loci.

The AFLP protocol amplifies restriction fragments obtained by endonuclease digestion of target DNA using “universal” AFLP primers complementary to the restriction site and adapter sequence. However, not all restriction fragments are amplified because AFLP primers also contain selective nucleotides at the 3' termini that extend into the amplified restriction fragments. These arbitrary terminal sequences result in the amplification of only a small subset of possible restriction fragments. The number of amplified fragments can therefore be “tailored” by extending the number of arbitrary nucleotides added to the primer termini. Alternatively, the use of endonuclease combinations that vary in their restriction frequency can also be used to tune the number of amplicons. Generally, the abundant restriction fragments produced from complex genomes require of AFLP primers with longer selective regions. Conversely, analysis of small genomes require of only few arbitrary nucleotides added at the primer 3' termini. The resulting AFLP fingerprints are usually a rich source of DNA polymorphisms that can be used in mapping and general fingerprinting endeavors.

Amputation of Claw in Cattle

Amyloid

• Amyloid (G. Amylon; Amyl(o) - STARCH) means starch-like.

• Amyloid is a pathologic glycoprotein deposited in the extracellular spaces and forms fibrils on polymerization.

Histological characteristics

• Amyloid is specially stained with Congo Red.

• Under polarized light, green birefringence is noticed because of alignment of fibrils.

• Amyloid fibrils are 7.5 to 10 nm in diameter, rigid, non-branching hollow-cored tubules of unknown length.

• β-pleated sheet configuration is seen in X-ray diffraction.

• The P-component which is a glycosa-amino-glycan (GAG) facilitates polymerization of amyloid.

An Abstract on Production Technology of SpicesAn Abstract on Production Technology of Spices and Plantation Crops

Veterinary anatomy is a backbone as well as basic discipline in the veterinary sciences at large. The new entrants of the first professional year of B.V.Sc. & A.H. get more exposure in gross anatomy, histo- architect models and developmental anatomy of their current curriculum in our country.
Laboratory demonstration plays a vital role module in virtual teaching and learning program of their better understanding of the subject. The visualization and memorization is the basic requirement for thorough understanding of the anatomy of the individual in medical sciences. The various method of teaching have been debated because it has own limitations. To improve the anatomical understanding the traditional way of using cadavers but with current scenario of restrictive laws which implemented by Veterinary Council of India (VCI) and other organizations viz, SPCA, PFA, CPCSEA/IAEC etc. The scarcity of specimens which are invited the other alternative way of keeping and preserving the specimens for laboratory teaching. Under the unusual circumstances, the normal conventional method of cadaver/specimen/organ preservation should be replaced by the advanced technologies for easy and interesting to learn. In the traditional curriculum method of anatomical specimens taught and learned by formalin fixed cadavers/specimens/tissues. Since, the conventional method creates health problem due to extensive use of formalin as preservative chemical for cadaver preservation. This method of preservation causes wet slippery tissues, respiratory irritation, topical allergic reactions, and students should wear gloves to protect themselves from the fixative like formaldehyde (act as a potential carcinogenic agent). However, the anatomists have been challenged for an alternative laboratory teaching aids in near future. In recent past, the alternative method has developed teaching materials by the innovative novel techniques like Plastination, corrosion cast, pneumatic air dried specimen etc.

Abstract
Coastal and marine ecosystems are important for climate change mitigations. The coastal ecosystems of mangroves, seagrass meadows and tidal marshes mitigate climate change by sequestering carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and oceans at significantly higher rates, per unit area, than terrestrial forests. Phytoplankton are vital autotrophic organisms in marine and freshwater ecosystems, playing a central role in carbon sequestration through the biological carbon pump. By converting atmospheric CO2 into organic carbon via photosynthesis, phytoplankton sustain aquatic food webs and facilitate carbon transport through the food web to the ocean floor as particulate organic carbon. This process, influenced by microbial activity and the sulfur cycle, results in the long-term storage of carbon in deep-sea
sediments, reducing atmospheric CO2 levels. Notably, phytoplankton exhibit high carbon fixation rates and lipid productivity, particularly among the chlorophyceae group, enhancing their effectiveness as a natural carbon sink. Biological carbon fixation is an attractive strategy for climate mitigation, offering a net-zero carbon emission approach to CO2 capture and storage. Assessing the efficiency of phytoplankton in carbon sequestration, through  factors like biomass, growth rates, and oceanic conditions, is essential for understanding and potentially amplifying the ocean’s role as a carbon sink, which is critical in addressing global climate change.
Keywords: Phytoplankton, Carbon sequestration, Climate change and Coastal waters.

Introduction

Value chain analysis has gained considerable popularity in recent years. Although many definitions are applied, value chains essentially represent enterprises in which different producers and marketing companies work within their respective businesses to pursue one or more end markets. Value chain participants sometimes cooperate to improve the overall competitiveness of the final product, but may also be completely unaware of the linkages between their operation and other upstream or downstream participants. Value chains therefore, encompass all of the factors of production including land, labor, capital, technology, and inputs as well as all economic activities including input supply, production, transformation, handling, transport, marketing, and distribution necessary to create, sell, and deliver a product to a certain destination.

ABSTRACT

A low molecular weight antifungal protein has been purified from the leaves of a medicinal herb, Mentha viridis, L. using a combination of cold acetone precipitation, carboxymethyl cellulose column, Q-sepharose column chromatography, and preparatory native PAGE techniques. The purified protein migrated as a single band on SDS-PAGE, with a molecular weight of ca 15.5 kDa. The purified leaf protein of M. viridis inhibited mycelial growth of phytopathogens such as Fusarium solani, Fusarium sp., and Pythium aphanidermatum. The purified protein from the leaves of M. viridis inhibited the growth of human pathogens such as Candida albicans and C. tropicalis (75 mg/mL). This inhibition is concentration dependent. The purified antifungal protein of leaves of M. viridis did not show protease, chitinase, and b-1, 3 glucanase activity.

Millets are an essential food in the world’s semi-arid and arid regions. These are effective energy providers. They provide dietary fibre, polyphenols, fatty acids, minerals, vitamins and protein. The production of tropical crops is highly risky due to the pest outbreaks and increased abiotic pressures triggered by the climate change. Despite the fact that conventional breeding methods have greatly enhanced crop yield and output, new strategies are needed to further enhance crop productivity in order to fulfil the world’s expanding need for the food. The use of site-specific nucleases like zinc finger nuclease (ZFN), transcription activator-like effector nuclease (TALEN) and clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat associated proteins 9 (CRISPR-Cas9) are the genome editing technologies developing very fast. The advancement of plant genome research and its use in plant breeding are significantly aided by such achievements. CRISPR/Cas9 and related genome editing methods are emerging as appropriate methods to reduce the negative consequences of climate change and assure the long-term food security of tropical countries’ growing populations.

Summary

Human being is dependent on nature and natural resources to combat diseases from time immemorial. Ayurveda describes the use of traditional herbs in medicinal preparations in ancient India. Such types of evidences are there in classical Chinese and Greek records also. Nowadays, modern tools are used to identify and purify the active principle from the herbal composition having the therapeutic effect. Bioinformatics tools are often used to screen the drug efficacy of natural products. Using computational and Bioinformatics tools, the efficacy of lead molecules can be screened. Moreover, drug targets can be identified using Bioinformatics and proteomics approach. QSAR and molecular docking tools are used to study the probable activity and mode of action of drug molecule. This approach has minimized the cost and time involved in the drug discovery process.

Abstract

In semiarid climates, a significant component of recharge to basin aquifers occurs along the mountain front. In this scenario Mountain Front Recharge study has been carried along the foothills of Courtallam ,Tamil Nadu. A total of 53 groundwater samples were collected along the foothills and measured for major cations and anions using standard procedure. Saturation index (SI) of carbonate minerals like Aragonite,Magnesite, Calcite and Dolomite,LogpCO₂ and Ionic strength obtained from WATEQ4F output. pH plays a significant role in the saturation index of the minerals. Most of the Carbonate minerals shows undersaturation  with the pH range 7.5. Positive relationship between SI and HCO₃ is noticed. A sharp increase of pCO₂ values towards the foothills region suggests that the groundwater has been recharged by, acquiring longer flow path during its infiltration into deeper level near foot hill region. The SI of these carbonate minerals was spatially distributed to identify the areas of higher SI and also it is compared with the water level fluctuation to understand the recharge process along the foothill region as well as riparian zone.

reach out their fingers it is gone” - Chinese Philosopher Lao Tzu Tao Te Ching. True to his verses, geohazards are phenomena regulated by the law of natureand it is beyond the human intellect to understand thoroughly and capability to conquer. This is the lesson learnt by us from so many incidences that geohazards cause greatest havoc wherein natural processes are going on and are inhabited by humans. Greed for natural resources and population pressures on the earth’s resources are the causes of many a catastrophic event. Examples in this regard are galore including, damning river courses and location of urban centers along rivers and coasts – flooding, cyclonic storms, tsunami hazards; alteration and deforestation hill slopes for agricultural and construction activities – landslides; unscrupulous utilization of ground water resources – drought, etc. This chapter is an attempt to draw the attention of human communityasa whole toturn towards learning to live with the nature without alterning the natural processes to get rid of impacts of geohazards as a best ever mitigation measure. In other words, this chapter attempts to emphasize the need to change our attitude to escape from natural hazards instead of attempting to tinker around natural processes only to get battered at the end.

INTRODUCTION

Oxford English dictionary states that the word ‘disaster’ is derived from the 16^th century French word ‘disastre’, which is a combination of two terms namely, ‘Des’ meaning bad or evil and ‘astre’ means star. Thus “desastre” signifies a ‘bad star’ or ‘evil star’. Disaster, therefore, implies loss or damage occurring due to some unfavorable star. However, in terms of modern knowledge, the word ‘disaster’ denotes any odd event, whether natural or man made, which can bring about sudden and great miseries to humanity in the form of loss of life or/ and property.

17.1. Introduction

Throughout human history, the coastal plains and Lowland River valleys have usually been the most populated areas over the world (Wolanski et al., 2004). At present, about 60% of the world’s population live along the estuaries and the coast (Lindeboom, 2002). This is degrading estuarine and coastal waters through pollution, eutrophication, increased turbidity, overfishing and habitat destruction. The pollutant supply does not just include nutrients; it also includes mud from eroded soil, heavy metals, radionuclides, hydrocarbons, and a number of chemicals including new synthetic products.

The impact on estuaries is commonly still ignored when dams and irrigation farming are proposed on rivers. In addition, estuaries are often regarded as sites for future development and expansion, and have been increasingly canalized and dyked for flood protection, and their wetlands infilled for residential areas.

All these factors impact on the biodiversity and productivity and hence, the overall health of estuaries and the ecosystem services they provide to humans. They increasingly lead humans away from the possibility of ecologically sustainable development of the coastal zone. Integrated coastal zone management plans are drawn up worldwide but, in the presence of significant river input, most are bound to fail because they commonly deal only with local, coastal issues, and do not consider the whole river catchment as the fundamental planning unit. It is as if the land, the river, the estuary, and the sea were not part of the same system. When dealing with estuaries and coastal waters, in most countries land-use managers, water-resources managers, and coastal and fisheries managers do not cooperate effectively due to administrative, economic and political constraints, and the absence of a forum where their ideas and approaches are shared and discussed (Wolanski et al., 2004). 

Introduction

In view of the existence of productive agro-climatic and soil-morphological conditions, a dynamic estuarine river system and unique network of productive brackishwater aquaculture has emerged in the coastal states of India. It is immensely suitable for the shrimp/shrimp+fish culture providing high valued export quality shrimp. The Indian contribution of world shrimp export is at 6% (Katiha et al., 2003). Unfortunately, investment in shrimp farming has slowed down (Hempel, 2000) in recent years due to lack of interest among the entrepreneurs. Therefore, it is pertinent to work out and compare the economic feasibility of various shrimp farming system. Studies on cost and return for shrimp production are scanty, therefore, in depth analysis with identification of bottlenecks, yield gaps and constraints is the need of hour. It may lead to harness the potential for shrimp farming through inculcating entrepreneurs’ interest. This may also help the financial institutions for reconsidering loan procedure and further investment in this enterprise. Considering, over one third of national potential area for the enterprise and its sustainability over past decade, the study mainly concentrates on shrimp farming in the state of West Bengal.

Vegetables constitute about 55 per cent of horticultural crop production in the country with a total production of 85 million tonnes which is estimated to cross 100 million tonnes in near future. Successful cultivation of vegetables is hampered due to the incidence of several insect pests. Cultivation of hybrids, improved varieties, intensive agronomic practices, off season cultivation and indiscriminate use of insecticides has changed the pest complex in these crops.

ABSTRACT

Shoot organogenesis from several explant types excised from in vitro grown plants of local elite brinjal (Solanum melongena L.) cv. Co2 was studied in response to the supplementation of thidiazuron (TDZ), BAP, IAA and NAA. Cotyledons and leaves were found to be the most responsive explants. High shoot bud induction rate (>50 shoot buds/explant) was achieved in the presence of 0.044 mg/l TDZ. The organogenic calli were subcultured in the same shoot bud induction medium for shoot development. Among different growth hormones, TDZ @0.044 mg/l induced more number of shoots per explant compared to BAP, IAA and NAA combinations. Efficient rooting was observed on half strength MS medium supplemented with 0.5 mg/l IAA. Higher percentage of rooting was achieved only when the well developed shoots were directly transferred to soil.

ABSTRACT

Direct shoot organogenesis from several explant types excised from in vitro grown plants of local elite tomato cv. PKM1 was studied in response to zeatin, BAP, IAA and NAA. Cotyledonary leaves were found to be the most responsive explants. High shoot bud induction rate (>25 shoot buds/cotyledonary explant) was obtained in the presence of 2 mg/l zeatin. The organogenic calli were subcultured onto the same shoot bud induction medium for shoot development. Among different growth regulators tested, zeatin @ 2 mg/ l induced more number of shoots per explant compared to BAP, IAA and NAA combinations. Rooting was efficiently induced on half strength MS basal medium supplemented with 0.5 mg/l IAA. The effects of various growth hormones on tomato regeneration on rooting were discussed.

ABSTRACT

Donor-recipient protoplast fusion vis-à-vis cybridization is an effective technique to transfer plasmon-coded traits in cultivated tetraploid (2n=4x=48) potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) from its diploid (2n=2x=24) cross-incompatible wild relatives. However, the method, although attractive, is difficult in terms of not only inactivation of nuclear and plasmonic genomes of the participating donor and recipient protoplasts, but also post- fusion culture and regeneration of putative cybrids. Here, we report an improved method for donor-recipient protoplast fusion and subsequent post-fusion culture and regeneration of electrofused protoplasts in potato. In the present experiment, Solanum verrucosum Schlechtd. (2n=2x=24) accessions CPC 1339 (CGN No. 17774) and HAW 2246 (CGN No. 17766) containing sensitive [Tr^s] plasmon for tetrad-type cytoplasmic male sterility were used as donors and S. tuberosum subsp. tuberosum cvs Kufri Ashoka, Kufri Chipsona-1 and Professor Broekema as recipients. For nuclear inactivation, the in vitro-cultured donor plants were exposed to 1000 Gy of unfiltered γ-rays before protoplast preparation using a revised protoplast isolation medium (PIM) containing 2.0 % Cellulase ‘Onozuka’ RS and 0.25 % Macerozyme R-10. The recipient protoplasts were treated with antimetabolite iodoacetate (1.0 mM ) for 45 min at 10 °C for chondriome inactivation. The protoplasts were aligned in an amplitude of 300 Vcm^-1 for 0.5-1.0 s before being electrofused by one DC pulse of 600-800 Vcm^-1 for 40 μs using a Cell Electrofusion Processor FPH 01001 (Bioelectronics Corporation, Troy, Michigan). The fused protoplasts were immobilized in alginate-plates, and cultured on modified VKM medium containing 0.3 M glucose at about 400 mOsmol (pH 5.6). After 8-10 weeks, the developing protocalluses were dissociated from alginate-plates and cultured for regeneration on MS medium supplemented with varying concentrations of zeatin/ zeatin riboside and gibberellic acid. The protocalluses derived from electrofusion between donor S. verrucosum accession CPC 1339 and recipient S. tuberosum cv. Kufri Chipsona-1 could be successfully regenerated into plantlets. Morphological as well as molecular-genetic characterization of regenerated microplants, both for nuclear and chondriome genomes, confirmed the putative cybridity as well as established the extent and pattern of mitochondrial recombination following donor-recipient protoplast fusion. The results have been discussed in relation to donor-recipient protoplast fusion approach and its potential application in potato genetic improvement.

Introduction

Present work report the study on Jakekur dam situated 4 km. from Omerga

The degradation of dam has occurred not only due to influents inflow but also by sanitation, domestic sewage, agricultural waste, and other activities around the dam like washing cloths, cattle, vehicles, and dumping of solid waste. Apart from it a large number of heavy metals is contributed by corrosion of metal pipe, runoff water from surrounding area during rainy season discharge of decorative paints in water bodies.

Geographical and morphological features of Jakekur dam.

Catchments area : 2110 hector

Gross storage : 10.17 TM C

Full reservoir level : 10 meter.

Length of the dam : 21.25 km.

Height of the dam : 14.80 meter.

ABSTRACT

Bacopa monnieri (L.) or Herpestis monniera, commonly known as brahmi, purifies the blood, and is useful in scabies, leucoderma, syphilis, diarrhoea and pyresis. As Brahmi is a major ingredient in several ayurvedic preparations, there is growing demand for steady supply of planting materials. Conventional propagation methods are less efficient than in vitro propagation. However, there are only a few reports on the in vitro propagation of this plant. Therefore, an attempt was made to evolve an improved protocol for the in vitro propagation of Bacopa. Shoot tips and nodal buds along with a portion of the stem excised from field grown disease free plants were taken as the explants. After three weeks of establishment on MS basal medium, the sterile cultures were sub-cultured on MS medium supplemented with different concentrations of BA (0.5,1.0 and 1.5mg l^-1). Rooting was induced on in vitro proliferated shoots by culturing on MS basal medium with NAA 1.0 mg l^-1 and IBA 0.5 mg l^-1. Treatments with BA 1.0 mg l^-1 and IAA 1.5 mg l^-1 recorded the maximum number of shoots (40.9 and 35.2, respectively). The height of the shoots was also significantly influenced by the concentrations of IAA (1.5 or 1.0 mg l^-1) in combination with BA (1.0 mg l^-1), recording 5.4 and 5.5 cm. The shoots with an average length of 3.0 to 4.0 cm were kept for rooting. NAA (1.0 mg l^-1) in combination with IBA (0.1, 0.5, 1.0 or 1.5 mg l^-1) produced significantly greater number of roots. The length of the roots was also greater in this treatment. The plantlets were transferred to pots in a greenhouse and later to the field with ninety per cent survival.

Introduction

In Puducherry, the first KVK was founded in 1974. In the newly constructed districts and several larger districts, 106 additional KVKs will be established, bringing the total number of KVKs to 645. KVKs are approved for use by Agricultural Universities, ICAR Institutes, associated Government Departments, and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) engaged in agriculture. The KVK initiative is fully funded by the Government of India. KVK, which is a crucial component of NARS, aims to evaluate location-specific technology modules in agricultural and related companies through technology assessment, refinement, and demonstrations. As a knowledge and resource centre for agricultural technology, KVKs have supported public, private, and non-profit sector efforts aimed at enhancing the district’s agricultural economy(1).

The KVK’s mandate has changed from vocational training to technology assessment and demonstration for its application and capacity building in a district in preparation for its growing contribution to NARES in India. Though technologies were developed at ICAR Research Centres or State Agricultural Universities, KVK carried out location-specific technology assessments, micro location refinements on farms with genuine problems, and final technology certification for widespread adoption by farmers(2).

8. Introduction

The idea of sustainable development stands on the concept of maintaining the best possible environment within the availability of minimal resources and for the convenience of the society. Now-a-day the term “sustainability” gained a lot of attention due to challenges and problems faced in tackling the current situation of global pollution. One of the vital areas of research needs to be addressed in concern with sustainable development is the new innovations to enhance sustainability (Silvestre and Silva, 2014). 

Throughout the history of Indian agriculture, the contribution of farmers to agricultural technology development and dissemination has been very significant. Farmers’ practices are useful not only for scientific technology development, but also for sustainable agricultural development. Rural economy will sustain only when it effectively utilise the available local resources. But recent agricultural development witnessed that those modern agricultural practices slowly replacing the farmers’ practices. In this juncture the basic challenge for sustainable agriculture is to make better use of these internal resources. This can be done by minimizing the external inputs used, by regenerating internal resources more effectively or by combinations of both (Rolling and Pretty, 1997).

ABSTRACT

The commencement of the 21^st century has endorsed an extended requirement for safe and wholesome food. The fact is that consumer preferences, awareness and their concern towards food safety have been tremendously increased. Therefore, inactivation of pathogenic microorganisms through any treatment becomes essential for food processors to ensure that food is free from disease causing microorganisms and parallelly unaltered with respect to its organoleptic, functional and nourishing characteristic. Food industries predominantly adopt thermal inputs for the preservation of food. Thermal methods, however, lead to unfavourable changes in organoleptic and nutritional attributes, more particularly proteins and vitamins. Hence, there has been continuous development and advances in finding alternatives to conventional processing. Cold plasma technology is one such technique. Plasma can be defined as a quasi-neutral ionised gas and is more commonly termed as 4^th state of matter. Advances in plasma engineering have made it possible to generate plasma at atmospheric pressure which ultimately resulted in broadening the spectra of research on cold plasma at various interfaces of biological sciences. This chapter summarises the overview of cold plasma technology processing, numerous findings related to its application in the area of food decontamination, food fortification, seed germination, milk and milk products and modification of starches.

Keywords: cold plasma, non-thermal, plasma chemistry, fortification, modification, germination, plasma generation, novel

North East India is a hub of ethnomedicinal diversity. Nearly 8,000 flowering plants are distributed and approximately 200 ethnic tribes and subtribes reside in the region. The cross-cultural diversity of the ethnic tribes and subtribes has enriched the ethnomedicinal practice in the region. Due to inaccessible terrains the ethnomedicinal practices are mostly confined to this region than the rest part of the country.More than 175 dialects are practiced in NE India. The ethnomedicinal documentation of the region in universally accepted languages was started in early 21^st century. The ethnomedicinal documentation requires multidisciplinary aspects viz., correct identification of plant species, updated nomenclature, geographical area of occurrence, IUCN status, conservational approach, vernacular names of the species, formulations, documentation of traditional knowledge informants, medicine men, specific indications of treatments, mode of preparation, mode of consumption etc, Optimum and sustainable utilization of ethomedicinal practice holds a good future for economic and societal development of the region. An insight covering various factors like challenges, scopes, legislative modalities of ethnomedicinal practices are discussed here along with a compiled list of commonly used ethnomedicinal species of the region.

Introduction

21^st century challenges like climate change, water scarcity, increasing world population, rising food prices, and other socio-economic impacts are expected to generate a great threat to agriculture and food security worldwide, especially for the poorest people who live in arid and sub-arid regions. Millet is one of the oldest foods known to humans and possibly the first cereal grain to be used for domestic purposes. Millet has been used in Africa and India as a staple food for thousands of years. Typical grain texture and hard seed coat of millets increase their keeping quality but make them difficult to process as well as to cook in convenient form. Absence of appropriate primary processing technologies to prepare ready-to-use or ready-to-cook (RTC) products and also the secondary as well as tertiary processing technologies to prepare ready-to-eat value added products from millets are the major limiting factors for their diversified food uses.

Millets have relatively poor digestibility and low bio-availability of minerals due to the presence of inherent anti-nutritional factors. The difficulties in millet grain processing present a challenge but nutritional as well as health benefits and consumer demand for health foods provide opportunities in processing, develop suitable technology for newer products and process mechanization. This change in technology and consumer food preference would help in increasing the area under millets, maintaining ecological balance, ensuring food security, prevent malnutrition and increase the scope for utilization of millet grains on industrial scale.

Abstract

The pressure due to increase in world population necessitates an increase in agricultural production and this warrants the vital importance of research in plant and soil productivity. Applications of chemical fertilizers and pesticides have resulted in soil pollution, desertification and salinisation which disrupted the agriculture production. A suitable microbial technology to improve the soil health and plant productivity has been invented. Increase in the use of bacterial fertilizers substantially reduced the use of chemical fertilizers. Similarly invention of specific antagonistic microbes which control pathogen and stimulate plant growth resulted in lesser use of agrochemicals. Selection, development and application of such microbial strains to the agronomic crops resulted improving the fertility of such affected soil. The studies on plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) on the growth and nutrient uptake of various plants have been well studied. Presently, it has been found that the use of beneficial microbes can enhance the resistance ability to adverse stresses. Some mechanisms by which the beneficial microorganisms are able to stimulate plant growth and arrest plant pathogens include mobilization of nutrients, production of phytohormones, siderophores, organic acids, nitrogen fixation, lowering of ethylene levels in plants and antagonism. Here the recent developments that have been taken place on the interaction between plants and PGPR and their mechanism of action resulting in enhanced agriculture production and soil fertility are discussed.

1. Introduction

The aquaculture industry is a rapidly expanding domain of food production worldwide. With the exponential growth of the human population, there has been a corresponding rise in the demand for natural resources. Therefore, all technologies aim to maximize food production. The widespread expansion of aquaculture, especially in coastal areas, increases the load of biomass in the culture water and presents enduring ecological hazards. (Piedrahita 2003; Sharifinia et al., 2018, 2019).

The primary challenge confronted by aquaculturists as a result of rapid intensification of the system is the quality of water. Consequently, there has been a surge in eco-friendly management and cultivation practices. Additionally, the development of aquaculture is limited by high land costs and its heavy reliance on fish oil and fish meal (Browdy et al., 2001; De Schryver 2008). Nevertheless, the sector continues to exhibit limited productivity, which is primarily attributed to inadequate quality inputs and substandard culture technologies. With substantial operating and maintenance expenses, the acceptance of recirculating systems among farmers, specifically in developing nations, is limited. Hence, there is a growing requirement for an affordable, environmentally friendly technology that is embraced by farmers and can be widely implemented (Ahmad et al., 2017; Karimanzira et al., 2017). There is growing interest in enclosed aquaculture systems, primarily driven by the biosecurity, environmental, and marketing benefits they offer compared to traditional, semi-intensive, and extensive systems (Ray, 2012).

ABSTRACT

An integrated geological, hydrogeological and geophysical analyses have been made to delineate groundwater potential zones in the Omalur Panchayat Union, Salem district, Tamilnadu. Sarabanga river is a major stream originating from western slope of Shevaroy hills. The tributaries are essentially consequent types. They are ephemeral in nature and the flow is restricted to the monsoon seasons. The flows of the streams are controlled by lineaments. Low drainage density, stream frequency and low relief indicate relatively high recharges and low runoff. The main lithological units are unclassified gneiss, grantite, charnockite, younger ultramafic rocks and recent alluvium. Ten vertical electrical soundings (VES) were carried out using Schlumberger electrode configuration. The maximum depth of investigation was 150meters when the electrode spread was generally in steps of 5 meters interval up to 50 meters and 10 meter intervals up to 150 meters. The field data were interpreted with the help of inverse slope method. Inverse slope field graphs reveal that in most of the locations, the aquifer consistsof five layers and third and fourth layersare normally weathered and highly fractured layers. These layers have attained a thickness range from 10 to 60 meters at the Tholasampatti, Sikkampatti, Pagalpatti and Sakkaraichettipatti. Correlation between the result of the VES data and the well lithology will be very useful in evolving ground water potential zones. Bore wells, dug wells in this area are normally sinking type wells. It will receive water only from the weathered, fissured and fractured zones which act as a favorable layers zones for tapping groundwater.

Taxonomic Classification of Common Livestock Species

A series of terms (kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species etc) is used to denote the member of a kingdom and each division of the hierarchy contains one or more groups from the next lower division like subphyla, subclasses, suborders, subfamilies, or subgenera etc if required. Further, species may be subdivided into varieties, breeds, or strains. Domestic farm animals belong to either class Mammalia or Aves. The scientific name of an animal comprise of its genus and species names. The first letter of genus name is written in capital letter but not the species name. While writing the scientific name of an animal the genus and species names are underlined when handwritten and always italicized when printed. General characteristics and taxonomic arrangements of common domestic animals have been given below.

Kingdom : Animalia

Members of kingdom Animalia are multicellular, eukaryotic heterotrophs. Adult animals develop from embryos. Most animals ingest and digest their food in some kind of internal cavity.

1. Introduction

Bryophytes are atracheate, archegoniate non-flowering group of highly diversified plants. Among plants they form the second largest group comprising of 15000 – 25,000 species (Gradstein et al. 2001, Crum 2001). They occur in every continent on globe, in every location habitable by photosynthetic plants and grow luxuriantly between altitude of 1000-3500m. In India, nearly 850 species of liverworts, 41 species of hornworts and 2000 species of mosses, such as are known so far (Singh 1997, Vohra and Aziz 1997). These plants exhibit a variable range of size as some of them are only 0.5-2 mm in size, while on the other end mosses Polytrichum commune and Dawsonia superba can attain a height of 50 and 70 cm, respectively. These plants play a vital role in soil conservation and formation of fertile substrata for other plants in forest ecosystem. On account of unique moisture retaining capacity, Sphagnum and other pleurocarpous mosses are being used as mulching substances, moss grass, moss sticks and bags in horticulture industry. These plants are very sensitive to environmental pollution due to simple structure and devoid of cuticle, and accumulate heavy metals too, hence serve as good bio-monitor of pollution. Some novel compounds viz., marchantin, riccardin, lunularic acid, terpenes and other phenolic compounds have been detected in several thalloid as well as leafy liverworts.

Bryophytes exhibit heteromorphic alternation of generations in which the gametophytic phase (haploid phase) is a prominent and nutritionally self- sufficient independent phase in the life cycle while the sporophyte (diploid phase) is attached and dependent on the gametophyte. The main plant body (Gametophyte) is either thalloid or leafy (differentiated into axis and leaves). They are attached to substratum by simple hair like structures called as rhizoids. The rhizoids are usually unicellular, simple (smooth walled) in hornworts; simple, tuberculate or sinuate in liverworts or multicellular, oblique septate in mosses. Sex organs, antheridia and archegonia produce antherozoids and eggs respectively. After fertilization the zygote is formed which develops into the sporophyte. The sporophyte consists of foot, seta and capsule. The foot is embedded in the gametophytic tissue and draws nourishment for the development of sporophyte. Seta is generally stalk like may be of variable length which holds the capsule. The capsule is the main fertile portion of the sporophytic generation. The spore mother cells, after meiotic division, form spore tetrads having haploid spores. The elater mother cells form elaters, which are sterile and help in the dispersal of spores. Bryophytes are homosporous. Spores germinate to form young gametophyte in liverworts and hornworts, while in mosses, spores first give rise to protonema then buds develop on the protonema to form new gametophytes.

Introduction 
The evolution of public administration in the digital age has been anything but linear. As governments worldwide grapple with waves of technological advancement, the boundaries between reform phases such as e-government, e-governance, digital government, and digital governance often blur. Transformations occur unevenly across sectors and regions, with older paradigms coexisting with or even outlasting newer innovations. As Dunleavy, Margetts, Bastow, and Tinkler (2006, p. 216) perceptively observe: “Defining periods in the evolution of any complex system, such as public management systems in advanced industrial countries, is tricky. New developments accumulate while older trends are still playing out and flourishing. Relatively established ideas move from leading-edge countries or sectors to implementation in previous laggard areas, even as the same ideas are being repudiated or reversed in the erstwhile pioneering locations. Moreover, a confusing welter of changes goes on simultaneously, amongst which it is difficult to distinguish ephemeral and hyped-up innovations from those that are fundamental and longerlasting”. This observation aptly captures the administrative reforms’ non-linear and layered character in the digital era. The coexistence of multiple reform paradigms ranging from early e-government initiatives focused on service delivery, to broader e-governance aimed at leveraging technologies for participatory governance, and finally to the strategic integration seen in digital governance illustrates how public sector innovation is cumulative and contested. Digital governance, in particular, cannot replace previous phases. Instead, it serves as their expansion and convergence, wherein technology, data, and citizen-centricity are embedded in policymaking, service design, and institutional accountability. To fully understand the rise of digital governance, examining the broader historical trajectory of administrative reforms is important. Since the 1960s and 1970s, such reforms have consistently remained a focal point for both

Downy mildew is refered to a condition of plant disease where the fungal growth and infection appears on the dorsal side of the leaf surface while the corresponding ventral side of the leaf shows faint yellowish color. It is also refered to the fungus which causes this disease.The word mildew in Latin language means mil + dew i.e honey like dews.The fungal growth on plant surface resembles to the milky dews in the beginging which turn to golden brownish honey like dews in later stage. Subsequently the affected areas turn grayish brown and dry. Besides the infection of leaves, the fungus also infects the fruits. The downy mildew infection on fruits causes the deformities on the affected fruits. The infection of the downy mildew pathogen on some of the cereals like pearlmillet causes the symptoms like green ear disease .

Downy mildew pathogens can cause major damage in the nursery, in greenhouse, in field crops and in landscape in the form of leaf spots, blights, and distortions with mildew growth. Downy mildews are primarily foliage blights with mildew growth of the fungus on affected portion. The fungus attack and spread rapidly in young, tender green leaf, twig, and fruit tissues. The fungal development are severe when a film of water is present on the plant tissues and the relative humidity in the air is high during cool or warm, but not hot, periods. Downy mildews can cause severe losses in short periods of time. Downy mildews often cause rapid and severe losses of young crop plants still in the seedbed or in the field. They often destroy from 40 to 90% of the young plants or young shoots in the field, causing heavy or total losses of crop yields. The severity of loss depends on the prolonged presence of wet, cool weather during which the downy mildews fungus sporulate profusely, cause numerous new infections, and spread into and rapidly kill young succulent tissues.