eChapters

Abstract
Single-cell proteins (SCPs) have gained huge attention in the aquafeed industry as a suitable alternative to traditional protein sources, including fish meal and soy protein. SCPs obtained from the algae, bacteria, fungi, and yeast often contain high protein content and superior amino acid profiles. The presence of essential fatty acids and additional bioactive compounds further support their role as adequate replacements for the current protein sources. Among those, mycoproteins are currently a major area of interest due to their favourable nutritional profile, higher growth rates and efficient production process. These have the ability to use a variety of agricultural and industrial by-products as their feedstocks. PEKILO® protein is such a commercial mycoprotein obtained from carbohydrates containing lignocellulosic wastes from forestry by-products. It was produced from the fungal species Paecilomyces variotii from the substrates such as spent sulphite liquor and molasses through a continuous fermentation process. Pekilo protein consists of 60 to 70% crude protein content, essential amino acids, vitamins, minerals, β-glucans and nucleotides. Its high digestibility and amino acid content make it a suitable protein source for the aquafeed industry. Recent research studies suggest that pekilo protein has a high potential as a non-conventional protein source in commercial salmon and shrimp feeds. Being a sustainable alternative to fishmeal, pekilo protein can help reduce the future challenges of fish meal supply and long-term sustainability.
Keywords: Pekilo protein, Mycoprotein, Non-conventional ingredient and Single-cell protein.

Abstract
As global food security becomes increasingly urgent, high-density aquaculture systems present a viable solution to meet the rising protein demands of the world’s growing population, projected to reach 9.8 billion by 2050. This chapter examines the integration of various innovative aquaculture techniques designed to improve the sustainability and efficiency of fish farming. High-density systems such as recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS), biofloc technology (BFT), cage culture, integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA), flow-through aquaculture systems (Raceways), hybrid systems, and vertical farming are explored for their potential to optimize production while minimizing resource consumption. The chapter highlights the critical role of stocking density in improving system performance, influencing factors such as growth rates, water quality, and overall resource use. IMTA, which combines fed species with extractive organisms like seaweeds and shellfish, facilitates nutrient recycling, promoting environmental sustainability and enhanced productivity. Hybrid systems, including Partitioned Aquaculture Systems (PAS) and Bio-RAS, integrate traditional and advanced technologies to overcome the limitations of conventional methods, enabling high-density production with reduced environmental impact. Additionally, vertical farming and aquaponics are examined as complementary strategies, integrating fish farming with plant cultivation to create sustainable, resource-efficient models suitable for urban settings. Through a comprehensive analysis of species selection, stocking densities, and system design, this chapter illustrates the potential of high-density aquaculture as a critical contributor to global food security, reducing pressure on wild fish stocks and promoting long-term environmental sustainability.
Keywords: High stocking density, maximize production, economic viability, environmental sustainability

Abstract
Aquaculture is the fastest-growing food production sector globally, with finfish and crustaceans playing a significant role in meeting the growing demand for animal protein. However, aquaculture’s reliance on marine capture fisheries for essential feed ingredients, such as fishmeal and fish oil, presents significant sustainability challenges. The Fish In: Fish Out (FIFO) ratio, which estimates the quantity of wild-caught fish used to generate one unit of reared fish, has become a key metric in assessing the sustainability of aquaculture. A high FIFO ratio indicates greater dependence on wild fish stocks, contributing to overfishing and ecosystem degradation. This chapter explores the FIFO ratio, its role in promoting sustainable aquaculture, and innovations to reduce its environmental impact. Over the years, the global average FIFO ratio has improved, reflecting advances in feed efficiency and the incorporation of alternative ingredients such as plant-based proteins, insect meals, and by-products from fish processing. However, challenges remain in these alternatives’ availability, cost, and nutritional performance. Case studies, including salmon rearing in Scotland and shrimp farming in Thailand, demonstrate the potential of alternative feed ingredients in lowering FIFO ratios and enhancing sustainability. This chapter also addresses the limitations of the FIFO ratio as a singular sustainability metric, calling for a more holistic approach to evaluating aquaculture’s environmental and economic impacts. Ultimately, achieving sustainable FIFO ratios will require
continued innovation, improved feed formulations, and global collaboration to ensure aquaculture’s role in providing a sustainable source of protein for the growing global population.
Keywords: Sustainability, Fish In: Fish Out (FIFO), Plant-based feed and Insect based feed

Abstract
Climate change significantly impacts the aquaculture industry, threatening productivity and food security. Rising temperatures, ocean acidification, extreme weather events, and shifting habitats disrupt species’ growth, survival, and reproductive cycles. This chapter explores climate-smart aquaculture (CSA) as a response, which focuses on sustainable practices to enhance resilience and mitigate climate change effects. CSA strategies include the selective breeding climate-resilient species and using advanced technologies like integrated multitrophic aquaculture (IMTA) to reduce environmental stress. These methods help maintain aquaculture productivity while reducing climate-related vulnerabilities. Adopting spatial technologies, including satellite remote sensing and site-suitability models, allows identifying optimal aquaculture sites less susceptible to climate impacts. Furthermore, disaster relief programs and insurance provide financial protection against the effects of climate-related losses, offering support during extreme events such as storms and algal blooms. Implementing these climate-smart practices is crucial to ensuring aquaculture’s sustainability and long-term viability, helping to secure global food systems in the face of a changing climate.
Keywords: Climate change, salinity intrusion, sea-level rise, ocean acidification and salt-resistant

Medicinal Plants for Arsenic Toxicity
Name of the Condition- Nephrotoxicity
About the condition/Definition- Intoxication of arsenic (arsenite or arsenate) result in renal impairment which is marked by a significant increase in the levels of creatinine, urea, uric acid and decline in levels of plasma protein profile especially albumin level in body.
Etiology- Nephrotoxicity results from arsenic damages mitochondria, which results in the excessive production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), a decline in ATP, and a suppression of respiratory activities along with dramatic alterations in the incidence of cellular growth. There is acute inflammation and the development of tubular necrosis, which lowers the glomerular filtration rate (GFR).
Symptoms- Phosphaturia (Fanconi syndrome), aminoaciduria, proteinuria and glycosuria along with progressive drop of renal function.
Pathogenesis- Arsenic produces renal damage by reducing mitochondrial complex function and elevating cellular ROS levels which directly damages renal cells. Membrane lipid peroxidation and protein oxidation by ROS, which results in complete loss of membrane potential and mitochondrial swelling.
General treatment- Acute arsenic intoxication can be counter by using chelating agents like DMSA, DMPS and BAL, fluid therapy, forced dieresis & dialysis.

Wound in Domestic Animals
A wound is defined as a break in the continuity of the skin, mucous membrane, or tissue surface that can result from physical, chemical, or biological agents. India has a diverse variety of livestock breeds, extensive countryside with vast grazing lands, and widespread use of livestock. The significant population of stray animals, including dogs, cats, and cattle, as well as the increase in pet ownership, make wounds in animals a commonly encountered condition. Wounds in animals can be a frustrating issue for both pets and productive animals, and this can also be a challenge for their owners. For instance, bleeding at the wound site from sudden cuts and bites can cause panic and distress among animal owners. Wounds can become complicated, as animals may lick, scratch, or otherwise irritate them, leading to infections, especially when they are soiled. Additionally, fly infestation and maggots, common in various temperate regions of India, further complicate the wound healing process. An unattended wound can quickly escalate to a severe microbial infection, which may lead to septicemia, maggot infestation, and can even become fatal for the animal. The cost of treating wounds in production animals, including expenses for antibiotics, can impose an economic burden on farmers. Common causes of wounds in domestic animals include penetrating injuries from horns, stamping injuries caused by mothers or other adult animals in tightly packed barns, tightened nose ropes, barbed wire injuries at the brisket region (in horses and cattle), and wet sores on the inner surfaces of the shoulder and groin in cattle due to friction and lack of air and sunlight exposure.

Feed additives like antibiotics, hormones are successfully employed in chicken production along with basic minerals, vitamins, and nutrients. Because of worries about antibiotic residues in animal tissues and the resulting development of bacterial resistance, the use of antibiotics as growth promoters (AGP) in cattle was outlawed in 2005. Given the rising concerns about antibiotic use and its involvement in antibiotic resistance, the use of plant-based chemicals in animal feed has become essential. Phytogenic feed additives, which are made from plants and their secondary metabolites, are becoming more and more popular as a result of the search for sustainable farming methods.
These natural growth promoters are seen as alternatives to synthetic chemicals, which are often associated with adverse environmental and health impacts. The usage of plant additions, also known as phytobiotics, have existed since the beginning of time, when people and farm animals were treated and prevented with herbs. The unique qualities of herbs and plant additions were effectively utilised by the ancient Greek, Egyptian, Roman, and Chinese civilisations. Phytogenic feed additives offer multiple benefits for livestock, including enhancing growth, improving immunity, supporting digestion, and promoting
overall animal health. Water or alcohol extracts derived from plant additions, whether fresh or dried, fermented, or freeze-dried, can be used in poultry practices.

Herbal galactagogues are medicinal plants used to stimulate, sustain, and boost milk production. Several plants known for their galactagogue activity are being used traditionally in many cultures to stimulate milk production in animals. However, there is a knowledge gap regarding the safety and efficacy of these medicinal plants. Moreover, the mechanism of action of the herbal constituents present in these plants is not yet elucidated. Although, many herbal galactagogues have been reported as safe in domestic animals and can be used as food supplements in the dairy industry. Nowadays, the use of plantderived supplements has increased in the dairy sector promoting a new trend of organic dairy farming. Traditional remedies being used for increasing milk production in animals often incorporate herbal treatments, mainly comprising
of the following important herbs [1-8]:

Introduction:The phenomenon of reproduction is an important aspect, which needs special attention in livestock farming to achieve optimum productivity and increase the economic status of the farmers. Variousgynaecological problems like anestrus, repeat breeding, endometritis,  retention of placenta, etc reduce thereproductive performance in farm animals. Besides indirect reducing the milk yield, it also creates financial burden on the farmers due to high cost of therapeutic drugs prescribed for their treatment. The use of various hormonal preparations and antibiotics has been critical in treating these disorders inthe farm animals. However, herbal treatments render a holistic approach to manage the reproductive problems with minimalcost and no side effects.
1. Name of the condition: Anestrous
About the condition/definition: Anestrus is a reproductive cycle dysfunction in which an animal does not display the obvious symptoms of estrus. It is one of the major limiting factor in achieving better reproductive
performance in farm animals.
Etiology and pathogenesis: Expression of estrus is controlled by secretion of reproductive hormones. Any disturbance in their secretion due to the effect of either ofSeason, stress, uterine diseases, poor management techniques, inadequate nourishment, etc., delays the process.The animals with smooth non-functional ovary are said to true anestrous, whereas absence of estrus due to retained CL on ovary due to uterine pathology are false anestrous.

Introduction
Serving as the primary biological barrier, the skin aids in immunological responses and provides protection against environmental pollutants and microorganisms, dehydration, and mechanical harm. The skin’s epidermis is made up of stratified and multilayered epithelial cells that, via a strictly controlled balance between terminal differentiation and cell proliferation, undergo lifelong self-renewal. One of the main causes of a wide range of skin conditions is the upset of this equilibrium.
Mycoses in humans and animals are prevalent worldwide. These diseases can arise as a result of a number of physiological and environmental factors, such as the effectiveness of the immune system of the recipient and the amount of fungi in the environment. Companion animal dermatoses rank among the most common reasons for clinic visits in day-to-day veterinary practice.

Nervous system Disorders in Domestic Animals
Nervous system disorders in domestic animals encompass a range of conditions that affect the brain, peripheral nerves, and spinal cord. These disorders can result in a variety of clinical signs, depending on the area of the nervous system involved. Infectious disorders like rabies, canine distemper, toxoplasmosis, listeriosis. Congenital and developmental disorders like hydrocephalus, cerebellar hypoplasia and chiari-like malformation can cause these disorders. Traumatic and degenerative disorders like Intervertebral Disc Disease. Degenerative myelopathy, metabolic and toxic disorders like hepatic encephalopathy, hypocalcemia, lead poisoning, organophosphate toxicity, autoimmune and inflammatory disorders like meningitis and meningoencephalitis may also lead to nervous system disorders. Some tumours associated with nervous system like meningiomas and peripheral nerve sheathtumours also cause nervous system disorders.  

The kidney plays a role in controlling the volume of different bodily fluids, fluid osmolality, acid-base balance, toxin elimination, and different electrolyte concentrations. The glomerulus filters one-fifth of the volume of blood that enters the kidneys. Among the compounds that are reabsorbed include amino acids, salt, bicarbonate, glucose, and solute-free water. Among the chemicals that are released are ammonium, potassium, hydrogen, and uric acid. The kidneys maintain homeostasis, eliminate metabolic waste products like uric acid, urea, creatinine and ammonia, regulate extracellular fluid volume, blood pressure (via the rennin-angiotensin system) and controlling systemic pH (via regulation of H+ and HCO3- concentration).
Among various kidney diseases, especially chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a slow loss of kidney function in which, kidney dysfunction is present for more than three months. There are six progressive stages of CKD i.e. stages 1, 2, 3a, 3b, 4 and 5. The stages are based on the results of glomerular filtration rate (GFR) test (1). In stage 1 there is mild kidney damage, while in stage 5 kidneys lost their working capacity. Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a worldwide health issue that is becoming more prevalent in both developed and developing nations. It typically affects adults. .

Respiratory tract disorders in domestic animals
The respiratory system is vital for efficient oxygen exchange, metabolic function, and overall health. Respiratory tract disorders in livestock speciesare among the most significant health challenges, leading to  economic losses in terms of reduced productivity, treatment costs, and mortality. Thesedisorders can affect the upper respiratory tract (URT), lower respiratory tract  (LRT), or both. Overview of common respiratory diseases in livestock, their aetiology, clinical manifestations, pathophysiology, diagnostic approaches, and management strategies are summarized as follows: -
1. Bovine Respiratory Disease Complex (BRDC)
? Species affected: Cattle
? Etiology: Multifactorial; involves viruses (Bovine herpesvirus-1, Bovine respiratory syncytial virus, Parainfluenza-3, Bovine viral diarrhea virus), bacteria (Mannheimia haemolytica, Pasteurella multocida, Mycoplasma bovis), and environmental stressors

Cardiovascular System Disorders in Domestic Animals
Cardiovascular system disorders in domestic animals include a range ofM conditions that affect the heart (pericardium, myocardium, endocardium), veins, arteries and lymphatic vessels. Infectious disorders like Heartworms (Dirofilaria immitis, vegetative endocarditis in pigs, equine viral arteritis). Patency of the foramen ovale, interventricular foramena, patent ductus arteriosus, persistence of the right aortic arch, coarctation of the aorta, transposition of the aorta, congenital aneurysm, pulmonic stenosis, subaortic stenosis, ectopia cardis, acardia, and diplocardia are examples of congenital and developmental disorders that can result in these conditions. Traumatic disorders like Traumatic reticulopericarditis and cardiac failure. Degenerative diseases like fatty and hyaline degeneration. Inflammatory disorders like pericarditis,
myocarditis, endocarditis and phlebitis may also lead to cardiovascular system disorders. Some tumours associated with the cardiovascular system like rhabdomyosarcoma, fibroma and myxofibroma also cause cardiovascular system disorders.

Our digestive structure is not only just a food handle centre. It’s a foundation of fitness, moving everything from our immunity to mental well-being. A fit gut aids in the digesting and assimilation of nutrients supports a healthy and strong immunity, and helps in the effective elimination of waste. Asserting good gut fitness is critical because it can influence our whole body’s health, prevent chronic afflictions, and develop value of growth. Plants have been second-hand for curative purposes for thousands of years, and many up-todate cures are still coming from plant compounds. In this chapter, we will
study some commonly used medicinal plants used to treat common digestive system diseases, along with associated ethnomedicinal details.
1. Diarrohea
About the condition/Definition- Loose, watery and possibly more-frequent passage of stool is called diarrohea. Feeling of urgent need of frequent bowel movement in a day.
Etiology- A few causes include infections, diseases, and food intolerances. Rotavirus, norovirus, viral gastroenteritis; salmonella, E. coli; giardiasis, amoebiasis and food intolerance are few important causes of diarrohea.
Symptoms- The symptoms include a strong desire to have bowel movement and frequent loose, watery feces. Occasionally linked to cramps, bloating, thirst, nausea, and abdominal pain

The control of external parasites and the pertinent disease vectors using chemicals is riddled with various issues and hence there is a huge demand for alternative approaches. Natural products, being a prominent resource for poor farmers, can majorly serve as a cheaper, environment friendly and sustainable alternative. Further, ethno-veterinary and traditional knowledge has provided a diverse array of plants, which need to be validated for their repellent, insecticidal and acaricidal activities to claim their effect against external parasites. Besides, phytochemical study of these therapeutic plants has progressively revealed the existence of a variety of bioactive components in these plant derived extracts, catering to their efficacy against external parasites.
External Parasites in Domestic Animals
External parasites, also known as ectoparasites are organisms that live on the surface of domestic animals, feeding on their blood or skin. Fleas, ticks, mites, lice and flies are among the most common external parasites. These parasites can cause significant health issues in animals including discomfort, skin irritation and even severe diseases. Infestations can lead to conditions such as dermatitis, anemia and secondary infections. Moreover, many external parasites are vectors for serious diseases that can affect both animals and humans. Hence, effective management of these parasites is essential to ensure
the health and well-being of domestic animals.

Introduction
Helminths are a group of internal parasites of animals and human beings that usually infest gastrointestinal tract that feed from the host which provides protection to the parasite. The infestation cause loss of blood and nutrients from the host, making it weak, and vulnerable to other infections. There can be injury to other organs due to the migration of different stages of the parasite, formation of cysts or secretion of toxins that can cause damage.
The heminths belong to two phyla including nemathelminthes which are round worms and Platyhelminthes that has flukes, and tapeworms. Nematodes are round worms who have a resistant cuticle and most of them have separate sexes with direct or indirect life cycle. The major nematodes include Ascarids, Strongyles, strongyloides, Trichostrongyles, Filarids, Trichuris etc. Tape worms have a flat body with a head or scolex, neck and strobili having proglottids. They are hermaphrodites and the proglottids contain reproductive organs. They require more than one host for completion of life cycle. The flukes are ususally leaf like , unsegmented and have suckers that help them to attach to the internal organs of the host. They also have a life cycle in more than one host.

Introduction
The use of medicinal plants for the treatment of diseases is a practice that spans centuries. In recent years, there has been a growing interest in using herbal remedies for treating fungal infections in livestock and animals. Fungal infections, caused by pathogenic fungi such as Aspergillus, Candida, Dermatophytes, and Mucor, can lead to significant health issues in animals, affecting both domestic and wild species. These infections often manifest as skin diseases, respiratory illnesses, gastrointestinal problems, and systemic infections, and can even lead to death if left untreated. While antifungal drugs are commonly used to manage these infections, concerns about drug resistance, toxicity, and sustainability have encouraged the exploration of alternative therapeutic options, particularly herbal medicine.
This chapter explores the potential of medicinal plants used as antifungal agents in livestock and animals, highlighting their efficacy, safety, and practical applications.

Viral Diseases in Domestic Animals
Viral diseases significantly impact the health and productivity of domestic animals, including livestock and companion animals, leading to substantial economic and emotional costs. In livestock, diseases like Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) and Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) cause severe production losses in terms of milk, meat, and wool. Similarly, in poultry, Newcastle disease and Avian Influenza outbreaks result in high mortality and disruptions to egg production. Among companion animals, viruses such as Canine Distemper and Feline Leukemia Virus (FeLV) lead to serious morbidity and reduced quality of life. Current control measures rely heavily on vaccination and biosecurity practices, but the lack of effective antiviral treatments, coupled with the emergence of drug-resistant strains, underscores the need
for novel therapeutic approaches. Medicinal plants with antiviral properties have garnered significant interest as sustainable and holistic solutions. Plantderived bioactive compounds offer a dual advantage of modulating immune responses and directly targeting viral pathogens, making them a promising area of research for the management of viral diseases in both livestock and pet animals.

The therapeutic potential of plants and its parts has been explored since ancient times and has been used for the well being of humans as well as animals. In the era of emergence of multi drug resistant bacteria modern research aims to find out alternative therapeutic approaches preferably from herbal source to combat the infection. Medicinal plants owing to their antibacterial, antioxidant, anti inflammatory capabilities have been used against many bacterial infections in livestock and companion animals. Ethnoveterinary practices have been documented against bacterial diseases in animals like mastitis, colibacillosis, Salmonellosis, pyoderma, otitis externa, gastrointestinal infection, pneumonia and many others, some of which are enlisted below.
Bovine mastitis, predominantly a bacterial disease continues to threaten the dairy sector as it inflicts great economic losses to the dairy farmers. The disease caused by more than 200 species of bacteria is characterized by inflammation of the mammary gland with physical and chemical changes in the milk and pathological changes in the glandular tissue. There is a significant reduction in the milk yield and many times it’s accompanied with abnormalities in the udder, milk and the cow. In addition to this, milk from affected animals may harbor the organisms which are potentially pathogenic to humans. Use of antibiotics is a common practice to cure mastitis.

Introduction
Arthritis, a condition characterized by inflammation of the joints, is prevalent among livestock species, particularly in older animals or those subjected to intensive farming conditions. It results in pain, reduced mobility, and diminished productivity. Herbal plants with anti-inflammatory and analgesic qualities are being investigated as a result of the increased interest in natural therapies, even if treatments like non-steroidal anti-inflammatory medications (NSAIDs) and corticosteroids have been utilized to manage arthritis in livestock. This chapter addresses the use of herbal plants to treat arthritis in cattle, including
a summary of the best plant-based remedies, their modes of action, and the scientific data that backs them up.
Pathophysiology of Arthritis in Livestock
Arthritis in livestock is primarily caused by joint degeneration, trauma, infection, or autoimmune disorders. The inflammation of the synovial membrane leads to the discharge of cytokines that cause inflammation, which degrade cartilage and cause pain. The condition significantly impacts the animal’s ability to move, affecting their overall well-being and productivity. In farmed animals, arthritis can lead to decreased milk production, reduced growth rates, and compromised meat quality, thus representing a significant economic loss.

Tumour in Domestic Animals
Tumours in domestic animals, much like in humans, can occur in various tissues and organs. These can range from benign growths (non-cancerous) to malignant tumors or cancerous. Their causes, types, diagnosis, and treatments depend on the animal species, breed, age, and environmental factors. Common tumours in dogs are mammary tumours, skin tumours, lymphoma, osteosarcoma and hemangiosarcoma. In cats lymphoma, squamous cell carcinoma, mammary tumors and fibrosarcomas are reported. In cattle, squamous cell carcinoma, lymphosarcoma and papilloma are common. In horses, sarcoids, melanomas and squamous cell carcinoma are common. In small ruminants (sheep and goats) lymphoma and skin tumours are reported. In pigs, lymphoma and melanomas are commonly reported. Diagnosis of cancers are done by physical examination, cytology, biopsy, imaging: X-rays, ultrasound, CT, MRI and blood Tests.

Introduction
Diabetes mellitus is a disease the related to metabolism of the body and malfunctioning of pancreas. Pancreas having alpha and beta cells where alpha cells produce enzymes needed for the digestion and beta cells mainly produce insulin. One important component that regulates blood glucose (sugar) levels and how it is delivered to the body’s cells is Insulin. The body’s cells run out of their primary energy source when insulin levels are low. Insulin voices the body’s cells to engross glucose from the bloodstream. Without an satisfactory amount of insulin glucose cannot invade the cells and so it accrues in the blood, triggering hyperglycemia (high blood sugar). In retort to this ostensible starvation, the body starts flouting down supplies of protein & fat for energy, producing weight loss contempt a ravening appetite. The body efforts to remove the extra glucose by micturating. To avoid thirst, the dog drinks more and more water. Type I increased diabetes mellitus outcomes from completeobliterat ion of the insulin-creating beta cells. In dogs, this is the most prevalent kind of diabetes. As the name implies, insulin injections are necessary to balance blood sugar in dogs with this kind of diabetes.

Introduction
Plants have been used for ages as animal and human health cures. Ethnoveterinary medicines, a phrase that primarily refers to folk skills, beliefs, knowledge, practices, and procedures related to animal health and the treatment of various disorders in rural regions, have acknowledged the ability of plants to combat a variety of diseases. The World Health Organisation (WHO) defines traditional medicine, also referred to as herbal medicine, as “When it comes to maintaining health and preventing, diagnosing, improving, or treating physical and mental illnesses, the entirety of the knowledge, abilities, and practices derived from indigenous theories, beliefs, and experiences whether or not they can be explained as illness”. Approximately 25% of contemporary medications are derived from plants that were once used in traditional medicine. The use of traditional medicine and its confirmation could result in the creation and discovery of more novel medications.

Abstract
Aquatic ecosystems comprising freshwater, coastal, and marine environmentsarem vital for biodiversity, food security, and economic well-being, particularly in developing countries. Nevertheless, human activities increasingly threaten these ecosystems, including overfishing, pollution, habitat destruction and climate change. This chapter examines the conservation of these ecosystems through an ecosystem-based management (EBM) approach, which is crucial for enhancing ecosystem resilience and preserving biodiversity. EBM provides a holistic framework incorporating ecological, social, and economic dimensions, moving beyond traditional management strategies focusing on individual policies or species. By considering the entire socialecological system, EBM fosters sustainable fisheries and aquaculture while
ensuring the long-term availability of ecosystem services. The chapter underscores the significance of policy integration, stakeholder involvement, and innovative solutions to safeguard and sustain aquatic ecosystems amid persistent environmental challenges.
Keywords: Aquatic ecosystems, EBM, Biodiversity, Sustainability, Climate
change

Abstract
Climate change and the rapid progress of urbanization lead to abiotic stresses of frequent flooding events and pollution seriously threatening the sustainable development of modern cities. The construction of Sponge City can effectively alleviate these problems and improve a city’s resilience to environmental changes and coping with floods making them more sustainable. China was the first country to build Sponge Cities for urban flood control, rainwater harvest, ecological restoration of urban land, and water quality improvement. Many Indian cities also face the risk of flooding during monsoon and this risk is going to increase year after year in the whole nation. India is getting bruised both ways- lack of water & excess flood. So, India too needs a mission that mitigates flood risk and provides a pathway to water security. The most promising solution across the world at this time is the idea to adopt Sponge City construction. Incorporating the Sponge City idea under the area of smart city project would save countless lives and lead to the implementation of sustainable cities. The expense of making this a reality may cost some money, but these projects will provide enormous benefits. Sponge City design thus would act as a defence mechanism during rainstorms, supporting greater absorption and water retention. Thus, it leads as a pathway for sustainable Indian cities.
Keywords: Flood control, sponge city, resilience, urban flooding, climate change.

Abstract
Environmental pollution, resulting from both human activities and naturalm factors, is escalating as a consequence of population growth, industrial expansion, and urban development. Bioremediation is a method used to clean up polluted soil and water by using natural helpers like microorganisms, fungi, and plants. Bioremediation is a biological technology which offers cost-effective and low-pollution methods that can be applied directly at contaminated sites for addressing specific types of contamination. This technique uses microbes to break down pollutants and plants to absorb or stabilize harmful substances, especially heavy metals. As pollution becomes a bigger issue, bioremediation offers a promising way to tackle it and help restore damaged ecosystems. Bioremediation can be a more cost-effective solution compared to other technologies for cleaning contaminants, while also minimizing potential risks to human health and the environment. This chapter provides an overview of the current status of bioremediation and highlights its potential areas of application.
Keywords: Bioremediation, Contamination, Ecosystem, Pollutant

Abstract
Coastal and marine ecosystems are important for climate change mitigations. The coastal ecosystems of mangroves, seagrass meadows and tidal marshes mitigate climate change by sequestering carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and oceans at significantly higher rates, per unit area, than terrestrial forests. Phytoplankton are vital autotrophic organisms in marine and freshwater ecosystems, playing a central role in carbon sequestration through the biological carbon pump. By converting atmospheric CO2 into organic carbon via photosynthesis, phytoplankton sustain aquatic food webs and facilitate carbon transport through the food web to the ocean floor as particulate organic carbon. This process, influenced by microbial activity and the sulfur cycle, results in the long-term storage of carbon in deep-sea
sediments, reducing atmospheric CO2 levels. Notably, phytoplankton exhibit high carbon fixation rates and lipid productivity, particularly among the chlorophyceae group, enhancing their effectiveness as a natural carbon sink. Biological carbon fixation is an attractive strategy for climate mitigation, offering a net-zero carbon emission approach to CO2 capture and storage. Assessing the efficiency of phytoplankton in carbon sequestration, through  factors like biomass, growth rates, and oceanic conditions, is essential for understanding and potentially amplifying the ocean’s role as a carbon sink, which is critical in addressing global climate change.
Keywords: Phytoplankton, Carbon sequestration, Climate change and Coastal waters.

Abstract
Aquatic ecosystems are seriously threatened by heavy metal pollution from urban, agricultural, and industrial processes. Aquatic animals can accumulate toxic metals like mercury, lead, cadmium, arsenic and chromium, which can have detrimental physiological, ecological, and toxicological impacts. Oxidative stress, organ damage, poor reproduction, and disruption of ecosystem functioning, including loss of biodiversity and changes in food web dynamics, can all result from exposure to these contaminants. Human health is also at risk from heavy metals moving via aquatic food networks. The effects of heavy metal pollution on aquatic life are examined in this chapter, along with mitigation strategies.
Keywords: Heavy metals, pollution, toxicity, aquatic ecosystems and mitigation strategies

Abstract
Emerging contaminants (ECs) are a class of newly discovered contaminants that have been identified as major water pollutants that have negative impacts on human health in recent years. These micropollutants are said to bioaccumulate in people, other aquatic food web creatures, and macro invertebrates. Conventional treatment methods are unable to eliminatethem. Only advancements in analytical  instrumentation made it possible to identify these pollutants, even at minuscule amounts. As new compounds are discovered over time, concerns are raised about their origins, fate, transportation, transformations, and effects on aquatic habitats. The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of the contaminants that are categorized as “emerging,” together with information on their sources, entry points into the environment, and associated threats to environment and possible treatments to somehow eliminate them.
Keywords: Emerging contaminants, Micropollutants and Aquatic System.

Abstract
Toxicants, whether naturally occurring or synthetic, present significant threats to aquatic ecosystems, leading to severe ecological damage and health hazards. These pollutants—such as pesticides, heavy metals, microplastics, and pharmaceuticals—contaminate water bodies through various routes, including industrial discharges, agricultural runoff, and insufficient wastewater treatment. They interfere with biological processes, causing problems like neurological damage, reproductive issues, and changes in water chemistry. Understanding the processes of bioaccumulation, biomagnification, bioconcentration, bioavailability and detoxification is essential for grasping how these contaminants impact aquatic organisms and human health. The rise of emerging pollutants, like microplastics and pharmaceuticals, adds further complexity, posing new challenges to ecosystem stability. Addressing these issues requires effective management and mitigation strategies, including reducing pollutant sources, improving waste treatment, and utilizing advanced detection techniques. Through research on these toxicants and their interactions, it is possible to better evaluate their effects, craft effective environmental policies, and implement measures to safeguard both aquatic ecosystems and public health.
Keywords: Toxicants, Bioaccumulation, Biomagnification, Bioconcentration, Bioavailability, Detoxification

Abstract
Microplastics, or plastic fragments smaller than 5 millimeters, have become prevalent contaminants in aquatic systems, arising from the breakdown of larger plastics, personal care products, and synthetic fabrics. Their presence disrupts marine and freshwater ecosystems by being consumed by wildlife, disturbing food webs, and polluting habitats. Additionally, microplastics can transport harmful pollutants and release toxic chemicals, worsening their environmental impact. Identifying these particles involves sophisticated methods such as microscopy, spectroscopy, and thermal analysis, although differentiating them from other particulates remains challenging. Major sources include direct releases, the fragmentation of larger plastic waste, and atmospheric deposition, with pathways like stormwater runoff and wastewater treatment aiding their dispersal. Addressing microplastic pollution requires a combination of regulatory measures, including bans on microbeads, technological advancements such as enhanced filtration
systems, and increased public and industry engagement. Continued research is essential for developing effective solutions, understanding microplastic pathways in the environment, and assessing their long-term effects on health.
Keywords: Microplastic, Environmental impacts, Detection, Sources, Mitigation strategies

Abstract
Microbial bioprocesses are essential for maintaining the vitality and functionality of aquatic ecosystems, playing a key role in important biogeochemical cycles including those of carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur.
Bioprocesses such as bioremediation, biofertilization, biofilms, biofloc technology, probiotics, bio-bleaching, bio-corrosion, and bio-fouling. these processes are applied in different domains including wastewater treatment, aquaculture, and environmental clean-up. In wastewater treatment, techniques like activated sludge and biofilms are utilized for the removal of nutrients and the breakdown of pollutants. In aquaculture, microbial management and probiotics help in sustaining water quality and improving the health of aquatic species. In bioremediation, microbes areemployed to tackle contaminants like heavy metals, oil spills, and pesticides, with advancements in microbial consortia enhancing the effectiveness of pollutant-specific degradation. the role of microorganisms as bioindicators and biosensors. Recent developments in microbial biotechnology feature progress in genetically engineered microbes, the use of synthetic biology, and the implementation of microbial fuel cells (MFCs) for generating bioenergy. Challenges and limitations, including environmental constraints, the potential risks of genetically modified organisms, and the feasibility of large-scale applications.
Keywords: Bioremediation, Biofertilization, Biofilms, Biofloc, Probiotics, Bio-Bleaching, Bio-Corrosion, Bio-Fouling

Introduction
Ensuring environmental sustainability through wastewater treatment is a crucial part of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The global shortage of clean water and the potential for future water scarcity, particularly in developing countries, represent a major crisis for humanity in this century and beyond. The UN reports that 1.2 billion people currently lack access to clean drinking water, and half of the global population does not have sufficient water purification. By 2025, it is expected that 1.8 billion people will live in regions facing severe water shortages (WHO, 2018). Currently, onethird
of the world’s population lives in water-stressed countries, and this figure is expected to increase to two-thirds by 2025. By 2050, between 2 and 7 billion people may face water shortages. The worsening water situation is largely due to inadequate water supplies and rising demand in developing countries driven by rapid population growth and industrialization. Contaminated water and poor sanitation contribute to nearly 60% of global illnesses. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that about 2.4 billion people lack basic sanitation facilities, and over 1 billion lack access to safe drinking water. Unclean water can lead to diseases such as diarrhea, cholera, dysentery, guinea worm infections, typhoid, intestinal worms, and trachoma (WHO/UNICEF, 2010). The World Health Organization (WHO) reports that four billion people suffer from diarrhea each year, leading to nearly 1.8 million deaths, with 90% of these deaths occurring in children under five years old. The quality of available water is declining because of rising pollution from industrial, agricultural, and other human activities. This issue is becoming a significant environmental problem.

Abstract
Pesticides, which are extensively employed in agriculture and pest management, pose serious dangers to the environment and public health because they frequently enter aquatic ecosystems through runoff, leaching, and inappropriate disposal. Acute and chronic toxicity in aquatic creatures caused by pesticide poisoning in water bodies can disturb ecosystem services and biodiversity. As sentinel species, fish have immune-toxic consequences, such as impaired immune function and increased vulnerability to illness. Aquatic animals and human health are at risk due to the bioaccumulation of pesticides in fish tissues and their subsequent biomagnification in the food chain. In order to control pesticide exposure and guarantee safety, important parameters such as Maximum Residual Limits (MRLs) and Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) are essential. In order to control pesticide, use and lessen its negative effects, government regulations and international standards are essential. In order to protect aquatic ecosystems and human health, future research should give priority to environmentally suitable pesticide substitutes and strong regulatory frameworks.
Keywords: Pesticides, Toxicity, Aquatic Environment, Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification.

Abstract
The aquaculture industry is increasingly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, particularly in regions like the UK, USA, and Nigeria. The study highlights the pressing need for innovative adaptation strategies, such as Nanosolar technology and integrated farming systems, to safeguard this vital industry against fluctuating temperatures, extreme weather events, and other environmental stressors. Through an in-depth analysis of vulnerability, the research underscores the importance of understanding the complex interplay between environmental, economic, and social factors in developing effective adaptation and mitigation strategies. Case studies from around the world illustrate both the impacts of climate change on aquaculture and the diverse strategies employed to enhance resilience. By examining the role
of technological innovations, adaptive infrastructure, and policy-oriented strategies, the study offers comprehensive insights into how aquaculture can be made more sustainable and resilient in the face of ongoing climate challenges.
Keywords: Climate, Aquaculture Sustainability, Risk Management, Sustainable Practices.

Abstract
Aquatic weeds, such as duckweed, present a dual challenge and opportunity within aquatic ecosystems and the poultry feed industry. These fast-growing plants, often deemed nuisances due to their potential to disrupt ecosystems, offer significant potential as alternative feed sources. Duckweed, a floating aquatic plant, is particularly noteworthy due to its high protein content, rapid growth rate, and nutrient recycling capabilities. In freshwater systems, excessive growth of aquatic weeds can lead to decreased ecosystem productivity, hypoxia, and anoxia, making effective management crucial. However, duckweed’s ability to thrive in nutrient-rich conditions and its high nutritional value, including substantial protein and essential vitamins, position it as a valuable feed ingredient for poultry. The Indian poultry sector, growing at an annual rate of 8-10%, faces challenges such as rising feed costs and limited availability of conventional feed ingredients. Integrating duckweed into poultry diets can provide a cost-effective, sustainable alternative that reduces reliance on traditional feed sources and supports ecosystem management. This approach not only addresses feed shortages but also contributes to environmental sustainability by recycling nutrients and mitigating pollution. Despite its potential, challenges such as lack of standardized regulations and market acceptance remain. Continued research, policy support, and market promotion are essential to harness the full benefits of aquatic weeds.
Keywords: Aquatic, Duckweed, Poultry, Sustainable and Feed Additives

Abstract
This chapter investigates the essential role of technological advancements in tackling the widespread challenge of water pollution. It includes the pressing necessity for innovative solutions in light of the increasing contamination of water sources globally, which threatens public health, ecosystems, and economic viability. The chapter outlines traditional strategies for mitigating water pollution, such as physical filtration, chemical treatments, and biological methods, while evaluating their effectiveness and shortcomings. Subsequently, it also provides thorough analysis of recent technological breakthroughs that present promising alternatives and improvements to conventional methods. These advancements encompass advanced oxidation processes, membrane technologies, nanotechnology, and smart sensing
systems, etc, each offering distinct advantages and the potential to enhance water quality. By juxtaposing these emerging technologies with established practices, the chapter seeks to provide a holistic view of how state-of-theart solutions can augment and, in certain instances, exceed traditional techniques.

Abstract
Aquatic sustainability is vital for maintaining the health and productivity of aquatic ecosystems. Human activities have significantly impacted these environments, leading to pollution, habitat destruction, and biodiversity loss. Green technologies offer innovative solutions to address these challenges. Key components of aquatic sustainability include biodiversity, water quality, ecosystem health, resource management, and social equity. Aquatic sustainability is crucial for food security, economic benefits, climate regulation, cultural and recreational values, and ecosystem services. Current challenges facing aquatic ecosystems include pollution, overfishing, habitat destruction, climate change, invasive species, plastic pollution, and habitat degradation. Green technologies play a crucial role in addressing
these challenges by reducing pollution, promoting sustainable fisheries management, mitigating climate change, restoring habitats, conserving water, and monitoring aquatic ecosystems. Green technologies such as advanced water filtration systems, nanotechnology, bio-inspired filters, desalination technologies, UV-C light, ozone, eco-friendly wastewater management, integrated constructed wetlands, biological treatment systems, remediation technologies, natural infrastructure solutions, and biodegradable materials offer sustainable and effective solutions for aquatic sustainability.
Keywords: Aquatic sustainability, Pollution, Green energy, Nanotechnology

a) Transformation towards Commercial Agro: The poultry sector in India has experienced a revolutionary shift in structure and operation, which has led its transformation from a simple backyard activity to a major commercial agro based industry over a period of decades.
b) Layer Farming: The production of eggs has increased from 1.83 billion numbers in 1950-51 to 103.32 billion numbers in year 2018-19. The per capita availability reached at 79 eggs per annum in the year 2018-19 from 5 eggs per annum in year 1950-51. Andhra Pradesh, Tami Nadu and Telangana contributes about 55 percent share in total egg production.
c) Broiler Farming: Chicken meat contributes to 50 percent share in total meat production in year 2018-19 with the production of 4.06 million tonnes production. Broiler production is mainly concentrated in
Maharashtra, Haryana, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. Broiler farming is mainly done through contract broiler farming. In that the integrator provides inputs such as chicks, feed, medicines and
vaccines. The contract farmer provides labour, shed, electricity, water, litter material, and other miscellaneous services or equipment that may be required. The integrator bears the transportation cost, investment and marketing risks. 

Agriculture and allied sectors have adversely hit by the COVID-19 scare.The rumors of poultry birds likely the carrier of the virus circulated in social media had led to reduced demand of the chicken meat in several parts of the country in the month of February 2020 even before India reported the first case of COVID-19. The poultry industry in India hit hard because of nationwide lockdown to stop the rapid spread of COVID-19 virus. This lock-down had disrupted the entire supply chain. Before COVID-19 the prices for broiler was about Rs. 80 per kg and Rs. 4 for egg the price dropped to almost no value like Rs. 6 per kg and Rs. 1-1.50 per egg. As a result, the projected loss of the industry was about Rs 25000 crore. (Shukla & Bhattacharyya, 2020).
According to industry sources, the poultry industry which had witnessed steady growth rate in the last two decades because of rising consumer demand for protein rich food especially but, it has incurred huge losses since the beginning of the 2020. The loss incurred by Indian poultry industry is mainly attributed to sharp decline in demand because of disruption of supply chain during lock down. The financial condition of all the stakeholders in the poultry value chain – farmers, feed suppliers and retailers had become risky. The drop in demand and supply chain disruption especially hit the smaller farmers who had limited
resources. Thus, many farmers went for ‘contract farming’ offered by many large poultry players.

12.1 Nutritional Value of Egg
The egg is one of the most complete and versatile foods available. It consists of approximately 10 percent shell, 58 percent white and 32 percent yolk. Neither the colour of the shell nor that of the yolk affects the egg’s nutritive value. The average egg provides approximately 313 kilojoules of energy, of which 80 percent comes from the yolk. The nutritive content of an average large egg (containing 50 g of edible egg) includes, 6.3 gram protein, 0.6 gram carbohydrates and 5.0 gram fat (this includes 0.21 g cholesterol). Egg protein is of high quality and is easily digestible. Almost all of the fat in the egg is found in the yolk and is easily digested. Eggs contain every vitamin except vitamin C. They are particularly high in vitamins A, D, and B12, and also contain B1 and riboflavin. Provided that laying hens are supplemented according to the Optimum Vitamin Nutrition concept (see chapter ‘Optimum vitamin nutrition of laying hens’), eggs are an important vehicle to complement the essential vitamin supply to the human population.

Poultry sector is expected to play the most crucial role in transforming the nutritional demography of country with ever growing share of protein based cheap human diets. Some of the specific challenges the poultry sector is faced with are as follows:
a) Regional imbalances in poultry production
The commercial layer farming is yet to make a dent in some of the region of country. However, broiler farming is gradually catching up in majority region.
b) Underexploited poultry diversity
Among poultry species, chicken production has already acquired large scale commercial dimensions in some states due to its better efficiency. However, there is a scope for exploitation of other domesticated poultry species.
c) Rising feed cost
The growth in poultry has outpaced the growth in cereal production leading to severe feed shortages and consequent rise in feed cost. Cereal by-products and oilseed residues usually constitute more than 80 percent of poultry diet. Coarse cereals also form the staple diet of millions of marginal farmers and landless labourers. These coarse cereals are the most important and most widely used poultry feed ingredients all over the world. The demand for coarse cereals is continuously increasing at 4 percent per year due to ever increasing population and their use in livestock rations.

Strengths
• Poultry farming generates early and regular income and has shorter generation interval.
• Poultry and poultry products constitute an important component of human diet. The consumption is also increasing at a rapid rate due to low fat content, easy availability and cost effectiveness.
• Poultry is the least cost alternative food source next to fish only and produces more animal protein from the same amount of feed. Two eggs provide 160 calories of energy constituting more than 20 percent of the daily requirement of Proteins, Vitamin A, D & B12, Riboflavin, Folic acid, Pantothenic acid, Phosphorus and Iodine along with fat.
• According to nutritional Advisory committee of India, at least half an egg should be made available to an average individual which workout to be 180 eggs/annum. Poultry farming require less area with high and quick return than any other animal husbandry and agriculture activities.
• Good infrastructure like road, rail, ports, airports, reliable electricity power and easily approachable to major cities of adjoining states.

a) Large Unpenetrated Market
According to the sample registration system (SRS) baseline survey, 2014 released by the registrar general of India, 71 percent of Indians over the age of 15 are non-vegetarian.
b) Young Growing Population and Nutritional Security
India as a one of the major young population country in the world (27.4%) according to FAO, OECD 2018 data there is a huge need to address the nutritional security of the people with higher protein diet. Thus, we have high requirement of protein to feed country’s population in up- coming years.
c) Per Capita Consumption & Income
The annual per capita consumption of broiler meat and eggs for India is far below then recommended consumption of 180 eggs and 10.8 kg poultry meat per person per annum by Indian Council of Medical Research. The increase in per capita disposable income has led to an overall increase in food consumption, particularly protein in the form of meat and eggs.
(McKisney and company Report, 2013). The study conducted by Law et al. (2019) suggested that in India the consumer preference has changed and the cereals are now substitute of animal products rather than a complementary product

The greater the distance between producer and consumer, the more complex is the marketing organization required to ensure that eggs reach consumers in the form, place and time desired. Producers may decide to market their produce directly to consumers - direct marketing - or may choose from a variety of marketing organizations that make up a marketing channel.
8.1 Direct Marketing
Direct marketing includes the following methods of selling:
• Sales from the farm (farm gate)
• Door-to-door sales
• Producers’ markets
• Sales to local retail shops

Major poultry products which are traded in world market are live poultry, edible poultry meat, cuts and offals excluding livers, eggs in shells, eggs not in shell, egg yolks, egg powder etc.

Table 6.1 and table 6.2 shows the Gross Value Added (GVA) of poultry sector in Indian economy. The GVA from poultry sector in year 2017-18 at current price was Rs. 32844 Crore and Rs. 101913 for eggs and meat respectively.

Backyard farming is an unorganized sub sector of poultry industry. India has nearly 60 percent of its population living in rural areas. However, in the present scenario most of the commercial poultry production is concentrated in urban and semi urban areas due to high demand. Only 25 percent population living in urban area consumed about 75-80 percent of eggs and poultry meat. Nonavailability of poultry products and low purchasing power of the rural people devoid them of access to the highly nutritious products like egg and meat, thereby, resulting in malnutrition. Free range and small scale semi commercial
back-yard poultry production can be advantageously promoted in rural areas, as the large commercial poultry production continues to be concentrated in urban and semi-urban locations. It can be used as a powerful tool for alleviation of rural poverty, eradication of malnutrition and creation of gainful employment in vast rural areas (Sharma and Chatterjee, 2009; Rajkumar et al., 2010).
The most basic and simple backyard production system involves a few hens and a cockerel is essentially a closed system. Home-produced fertile eggs arehatched to provide replacements, birds feed by  scavenging or are provided with household scraps and crop by-products; there are virtually no veterinary inputs and the remaining eggs and meat produced are consumed within the household. Such very simple subsistence poultry production systems are probably quite rare. Producers with even slightly larger flocks, generate cash income from the sale of eggs and birds within the local community. Transactions may take place directly between producers and consumers, but traders and other market intermediaries may be involved, selling on to other sectors of the poultry industry. Village or backyard production systems are widely distributed and exist in both rural and urban areas. It is estimated that today in India, about 18 percent of total poultry output is derived from backyard production. 

4.1 Layer Industry
4.1.1 Global scenario
Poultry is raised by approximately 80 percent of rural households in developing countries. Food and Agriculture Organization’s statistics department show that total egg production has grown from 61.7 million tonnes in 2008 to 76.7 million tonnes in 2018. China continues to lead the way, producing 466 billion eggs in 2018, which represents 34 percent of the global market. China has been the world’s largest producer of eggs for the last 30 years. China, European Union (EU), United states of America (USA) and India produce almost 60 percent of the world’s eggs, while the next 6 largest producers take a further 16 percent of the market. This means that the top 10 egg producers account for more than three fourth of the world’s egg production. Asia is the largest eggproducing region, with more than 60 percent of global output.