eChapters

Rabbit domestication dates back no farther than the previous millennium. It were the Phoenicians who are said to have discovered the wild rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus of Southern Europe and North Africa when they reached the shores of Spain about 1000 B.C. In Roman times, the rabbit was still emblematic of Spain. The Roman spread the rabbit throughout the empire as a game animal. Like the Spaniards, the Romans also ate foetuses or new born rabbits, which they called laurices. It then becomes a practice that the rabbits were kept in leporarian, stone –walled pens or parks for hunting purposes. These leporaria ultimately paved the way for the development of game parks in the middle Ages. The monks ate laurices during lent because they were an aquatic dish. In France, only the lord of the manor could maintain a warren.

Natural farming in India is deeply rooted in ancient agricultural traditions that prioritized ecological balance and sustainability long before chemical-based farming became widespread. Traditionally, Indian farmers relied on natural cycles, indigenous seeds, animal manure, and mixed cropping to maintain soil fertility, preserve water resources, and enhance biodiversity—principles that form the core of present-day natural farming.
The modern natural farming movement drew global inspiration from Masanobu Fukuoka, a Japanese farmer and philosopher who developed the “do-nothing” method. His philosophy advocated no plowing, no chemical use, and minimal human intervention, which resonated strongly with India’s Vedic agricultural practices. In India, Subhash Palekar further revived and adapted this approach into Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF), a system using local materials such as cow dung, urine, and crop residues. ZBNF emerged as a grassroots response to the ecological damage and financial burdens caused by Green Revolution methods.
Natural farming has since gained international attention. Countries like South Korea, Brazil, and the Philippines have embraced similar ecological practices to address soil degradation and input costs. The FAO and other global bodies also support agroecological methods that mirror natural farming for sustainable food systems.

1.1 Introduction

With the rise in the global population, the demand for increased supply of food has motivated scientists and engineers to design new methods to boost agricultural production. With limited availability of land and water resources, growth in agriculture can be achieved only by increasing productivity through good agronomy and supported with an effective use of modern technology. Advanced agronomical methods lay stress not only on boosting agricultural produce through use of more effective fertilizers and pesticides, but also on the hygienic storage of agricultural produce. The detrimental effects of modern agricultural methods on the ecosystem have raised serious concerns amongst environmentalists. The widespread use of persistent pesticides globally over the last six decades has contaminated groundwater and soil, resulting in diseases and hardships in non-target species such as humans and animals. The first step in the removal of disease causing microbes from food products or harmful contaminants from soil and groundwater is the effective detection of these damaging elements. Nanotechnology can augment agricultural production and boost food processing industry through applications of these unique properties.

Water is essential for life and most of the civilization flourished on bank of rivers like Indus valley, Mesopotamia, May, INCA and also destroyed in lack of water. Scarcities and famines were the common phenomena of the world civilization. Systematic dry cultivation started around 1850 and improved techniques were started in use in USA. 

Introduction

It has been proved that libraries play a crucial role in education. Libraries have been collecting, preserving, and organizing knowledge since time immemorial. In the age of virtual information, libraries have been reinventing themselves as accessible and engaging learning spaces. Libraries existed in India during the ancient and medieval periods. The library is the primary requirement of the university. University libraries have a paramount role in developing university education in the country. The present chapter highlights the historical development of libraries, committees, and commissions on university libraries in India.

Research is the basics which have changed human life and surrounding environment what existed on earth million years ago into present form. As soon as man realized himself as a separate entity from other animals, he started thinking about himself, creatures co-inhabiting with him and the universe. In that sense, biological science is the oldest subject which fascinated man, though it was called natural sciences in ancient times. Perhaps, the first curiosity was about himself, his birth, death and alike matters. As soon as he realized mortality of life or faced death of his dear ones, he attempted to become immortal or ‘amar’. This is reflected by worshiping of ‘Asur ’(Hirnakashyap, Bhasmasur, Ravan etc) to ‘Brahma’ or ‘Shiva’ for receiving the blessings of becoming immortal . However, even God refrained to bless these personalities becoming ‘amar’ confirming the realization by all that life is strongly linked with death ; as such they were blessed with certain conditional ties which may lead their death. Eventually, they met with their death under specific circumstances (3). When God or His little part (Ansh) took birth on earth as incarnation, He also followed all the rules and regulations of cosmic laws. But He never tried to become immortal and left His body on the earth, after finishing His duties.

India faced a series of famines from 1857 to 1901, for which the government was forced to appoint some commissions. The Famine Commission of 1880 recommended the establishment of a separate Department of Agriculture at both the central and provincial levels. Based on such recommendations, the Agricultural Departments were established in 1981–1982, and some acts like the Land Improvement Act and Agricultural Loans Act, 1988 and Co- operative Act, 1904 were passed and development departments were established. As a protection measure, some irrigation projects were created. The Famine Commission (1901) also recommended for establishment of Agricultural Research Stations and Colleges. The Imperial Agricultural Research Institute along with an Agricultural College was established at Pusa Institute. As per the Government India Act of 1919, all departments connected with rural development to the major provinces and agricultural development became a State subject. Rural Development works were made provincial subjects from 1935. Various diversified efforts for rural reconstruction were made for the development of extension in India during the Pre- Independence and Post- Independence periods. These extension programs were launched in four stages as indicated below.

Stage I: Pre- Independence Extension

Stage II: Post- Independence Extension (1947–1953)

Stage III: Community Development and National Extension service (1953–1960)

Stage IV: Intensive Agricultural Development (1960 onwards)

Pre- independence extension in India

Between 1903 and 1946, eight important area- specific programs were implemented for rural development while the Grow More Food Campaign was implemented in the entire country to increase food grains production. The description of these programs/projects is given below in brief.

ABSTRACT

This paper provides an account on the origin of the concepts of IP, gradual development and their culmination at the TRIPS.

Introduction

Intellectual property rights form the most prominent and ever-expanding category of rights in the 21^st Century. It differs from other proprietary rights in many respects and prevails in most articles of law, which influence our daily life. The economic significance of intellectual property rights has made it a subject of global political interest. In the broader sense, the term “intellectual property rights” connotes different categories of rights such as patents, copyrights, trademarks, designs, plant varieties, semiconductors, geographical indications, trade secrets and data exclusivity with varying scope

Aquaculture is associated with the rearing, breeding, and harvesting of aquatic organisms in cages, tanks, ponds, or other simulated systems, and can be practiced in fresh water, brackish water, or marine water. The practice of cultivating aquatic species in a systematic manner dates back to before 1000 BC. Theories such as oxbow, catch-and-hold, concentration, and trap-and cropexplain how the transition from hunting to farming may have occurred along with the advancement of civilization. Along with rearing the aquatic species for nourishment, advanced techniques have led to the enhancement of economic value through the inclusion of pearl oyster farming. India is among the largest producers of fisheries and has become the world’s second largest producer of aquaculture fish. Globally, aquaculture diversity has reached a maximum value of 428 ± 11 species, of which 29 ± 1 will produce 80% of the global annual production. The total global aquaculture production has increased enormously, from 20 million tons in 1992 to more than 120 million tons in 2020. Fisheries and aquaculture have become essential foods providing commodities worldwide and an important means of nourishment for the poor. A temporal and geographical analysis of global aquaculture diversity reveals an original and hopefully enlightening vision of modern aquaculture and its perspectives.

This chapter attempts to travel the timeline and dissect historical perspectives of vaccination. Vaccine that protects and shields from numerous dangerous diseases (vaccine-preventable diseases; VPD) is an important area of research and development. Considering that vaccine has been very useful in successfully combating numerous infectious diseases in the past 200 years, they are considered as a historical turning point in the field of public health and medicines. Critical illnesses like the smallpox and wild polio (virus types 2 and 3) have mostly been eradicated as a result of mass immunisation programmes worldwide. Research, collaboration and widespread vaccination campaigns were necessary in vaccination efforts to control and ultimately eradicate infectious diseases. Biotechnological research has progressed to a level where producing recombinant vaccines is feasible. Research and development efforts on therapeutic vaccines are ongoing. Vaccine research in recombinant DNA/RNA technologies and therapeutic vaccinations for specific illnesses seem to be the future. This article offers a comprehensive history of vaccination since inception to its present forms, with future projections. Beginning with the variolation techniques in the early 17th century, it discusses the important turn of events from its discovery to the continued advancements and inventions till the covid-19 vaccine. Alongside the detailed core aspect, the chapter also describes the benefits of the one health approach with the zoonotic diseases in focus.

India is facing with the issue of food production, especially the production of protein resources. The food production rate in India is insufficient to cope up with an alarmingly growing population. Protein deficiency is currently the most serious human malnutritional problem, with protein deficiency affecting about 30% of the world’s population. To cope up with the current situation, there is therefore a need for an all-out effort to increase food production especially the production of animal protein. Pisciculture has acquired primary importance in this context, and the culture of Indian major carps and their allies is now a common practice. For a long time, the culture of air-breathing fishes in the derelict water has remained neglected. Many such fishes, however, have become popular in the recent past, being rich in their food value.

The demand for fish as nutritious food is increasing day by day, as it is a good source of high quality-protein and lipid and is more palatable than vegetables. It is relished for its characteristic flavour due to high myofibrillar and low stroma protein, rich in essential amino acids particularly lysine and arginine (Kinsella, 1986). Fish proteins play a beneficial role in lipid and cholesterol metabolism by reducing triacylglycerol (=triglyceride) and phospholipid levels in plasma (Tsukuda and Arai, 1986). These proteins occupy an important place in human nutrition due to their high digestibility and growth-promoting value. Fish lipid has a high amount of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUSFAS), which reduce plasma cholesterol, and this helps in ischemic heart disease and arteriosclerosis (Kinsella, 1986).

The biocontrol use had almost completely disappeared due to the growth and success of the synthetic pesticide industry in the mid-1940s. The publication of Rachael Carson's 'Silent Spring' (Carson 1962) which condemned the use of agricultural pesticides and emphasized their harmful environmental effects on wildlife. Due to public outrage over this controversial book, there was a need for pesticide alternatives, which presents an opportunity for wider use of biological control (Barratt et al. 2010; Gay 2012).

This chapter introduces the evolution of forestry from traditional human dependence on forest resources to a multidisciplinary scientific field concerned with ecological, economic, and social objectives. It traces the development of scientific forestry in Europe and its expansion into India, including the influence of German and French forestry systems. The chapter examines the establishment of forest administration, forest legislation, and the changing role of forestry during the colonial and post-independence periods. It also discusses the evolution of national forest policies, farm forestry, social forestry, participatory forest management, forestry education, and contemporary conservation frameworks. The chapter highlights the transition from production-oriented forestry toward sustainable forest management, biodiversity conservation, community participation, and climate resilience.

Social civilization of the Neolithic settlements of primitive human communities contributes substantial initiation of cultivation and an approach towards conservation of useful plant species for sustainable food habits. Several archaeological attestations confirm that Homo sapiens at the end of the Paleolithic period had knowledge on many useful plants derived from food gathering techniques. Growth of human populations beyond the size that hardly supports hunting and gathering for food materials may perhaps be the probable reason that forced the Neolithic primitive nomadic communities for settlement and emergence of crude forms of cultivation.

History of Soil Microbiology

There is enough evidence in the literature to believe that microorganisms were the earliest of the living things that existed on this planet. Man depends on crop plants for his existence and crop plants in turn depend on soil and soil microorganisms for their nutrition. Scientists from the beginning studied the microorganisms from water, air, soil, etc. and recognized the role of microorganisms in natural processes and realized the importance of soil microorganisms in the growth and development of plants.Thus, microorganisms have been playing a significant role long before they were discovered by man. Today, the soil is considered to be the main source of scavenging the organic wastes through microbial action and is also a rich storehouse for industrial microflora of great economic importance.

Unlike soil science whose origin can be traced back to Roman and Aryan times, soil microbiology emerges as a distinct branch of soil science during the first half of the 19^th century. Some of the notable contributions made by several scientists in the field of soil microbiology are highlighted in the following paragraphs.

Anton Von Leeuwenhoek (1673) discovered and described microorganisms through his own made first simple microscope with a magnification of 200 to 300 times. He observed minute, moving objects which he called “animalcules” (small animals) which are now known as protozoa, fungi, and bacteria. He for the first time made the authentic drawings of microorganisms (protozoa, bacteria, fungi).

Development of Agriculture in the World and in India

Agricultural ecosystems will increasingly be called on to deliver food and fiber for a demanding and expanding global population. Until recently, increased production relied on expansion of the amount of land under cultivation and irrigation. Since World War II, production advances have relied on genetics and plant breeding, advances in fertilizer and pesticide use and improved cultural management (Matson et al., 1997). Since 1950, agriculture worldwide has expanded cereal production by an average of 2% per annum while population has increased by 1.9% per year (Borlaug and Dowswell, 1994).

Modern science-based agriculture had its beginnings in the late 19^th century with improved traction and tillage equipments. However, it was not until after World War II that the research findings that led to the modern-day productive systems in the United States and later in European and other developed countries. The expansion was directly related to the great demand for food to support the Allied war effort. Knowledge bases developed in plant genetics, physiology and pathology, along with a ten-fold increase in fertilizer use, advances in seed technology, weed control, irrigation and cultural methods allowed the development of the systems that dominate agriculture in many of the countries today. Corn or maize responded dramatically to the advances in production technology. Maize yield in the United States has increased more than 300 per cent over the past 50 years and continues to rise. Maize production technology has been delivered worldwide (Borlaug and Dowswell, 1994).

Worldwide, agriculture is the foundation of early human civilization. Humans transitioned from hunting and gathering to farming when they settled near rivers. As a consistent source of food, agriculture aided in human evolution. From then on, the economy has been sustained by agriculture. Among other things, illnesses and natural disasters frequently have an impact on agriculture. Such a state required advisory. This explains the existence of the agricultural extension domain. A social innovation, agricultural extension has been copied, altered, and developed over the years.

A review on historic occurrences of tsunamis in the Indian Ocean and their associated characteristics followed by detailed characterization of genetic causes of recent tsunamiarepresented in this chapter. Althoughsubmarineearthquakes occur very frequently, resultant tsunami and its strength relied on many factors including transformation of energy into the ocean water, area of rupturing of ocean floor, duration of rupturing, accompanying submarine slides, kind of material at focus of earthquakes and type of faulting. The direction of tsunami wave propagation plays the decisive role in deciding sites of impacts. Perfect blend of all these parameters is required to make a submarine earthquake to generate devastating tsunami, which is relatively rare in geological history. This is the reason why although there were as many as 77 tsunamis that occurred in the Indian Ocean region during historic past, the recent one of 26th December 2004 is deadly and rare geological occurrence. However, aftermath effects in terms of volcanic eruptions, coastal high wave activities and change in climatic cycles are recorded since then and require constant scientific vigil.

INTRODUCTION

Tsunami is defined as a sea wave of local or distant origin that results from large-scale seafloor displacement associated with major earthquake or submarine slide or submarine volcanic explosion. Many a times it is incorrectly described as tidal wave or seismic sea wave, as both of these terms mislead in regard to its mechanism of generation. In Tamil Sangam literature, tsunami is cited as “Azhipperalai”. In South America, it is termed as “Maremoto”. Other names for tsunami include “Flutwellen”, “Vloedgolven” “raz de mare” “Vagues Sismique” and Kai e’e. Prevalence of specific terms for tsunami in many such regions and languages itself stands testimony to the fact that tsunami is known to ancient human populations and that tsunami occurred frequently the historics past.

History of plant pathology records chronological account of important events, contributions of persons who significantly influenced the thinking of their era and interpretation of the observed facts or phenomenon over a period of time. Historical writings help us to understand systematic development in plant pathology, and there problems faced by certain outstanding workers whose view points were unacceptable to majority of opinion makers, simply because it was new and against the established norms of the day. History of plant pathology is a must read for the students of this discipline. The historical accounts will unfold the stories that may motivate the new generation to think and interpret the findings in their own way, without fear of established theories and dogmas carried from the past.

History

The history of organic farming is largely based upon the history of organic movement which came to fore as a reaction against the large-scale use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture. This movement can be traced back to England during 1920, when individuals started speaking against a variety of agricultural “innovation”.

One of the earlier pioneers of Organic Farming, Sir Albert Howard, is often referred to as the father of the modern “Organic Farming”. He began to work as a British botanist and served as an agriculture advisor in India, where he observed traditional Indian farming practices and came to respect them as superior to his conventional agriculture science. He documented and developed these organic farming practices/methods. His writings and notably the 1940 book, An Agricultural Testament, have influenced many scientists and farmers of the day.

In Germany Dr. Rudolf Steiner developed biodynamic agriculture which was probably the first comprehensive farming system. In America, the agronomist F.H. King had toured China, Korea and Japan in early 1990s, closely studied the fertilization, tillage and general farming practices being followed there. He published his findings in his book Farmers of Forty Centuries (1911). King probably did not impart any view himself as part of the movement, whether Organic Farming movement or by some other name. However, in the later years, some scientists within the organic farming movement thought, about what King had encountered in Asia as kindred approach.