eChapters

Agriculture continues to be the occupation and way of life for more than half of the Indian population even today. Sustainable prosperity of this class-the farmers, the landless agricultural labourers holds the key for improving the overall human resource development scenario in the country. Indian agriculture had been on traditional lines till the first waves of Green Revolution gave a sudden boost to the production and productivity of major cereals in the assured irrigated areas. Quick dissemination of technological information from the agriculture research system to the farmers in the field and reporting of farmers feed back to the research system is one of the critical inputs in transfer of agricultural technology. The information and communication support during last 50 years has mainly been conventional. The extension personnel of the departments of agriculture disseminated the technological message to the farmers through personal approach. This approach has not been able to reach and satisfy majority of the farmers who are spread across the whole country with varied interests. This gap remains a challenge for the Extension System even today.

To reach over 110 million farmers, spread over 500 districts and over 6000 blocks is an uphill task. The diversity of agro-ecological situations adds to this challenge further. The success of Green revolution was mainly achieved due to concerted homogenous extension strategy. Farmer’s needs are much more diversified and the knowledge required to address them is beyond the capacity of the grass root level extension functionaries.

There are basically two aspects of extension: the education function which aims to help farmers gain knowledge, acquire skills and change attitudes for their own benefit; and the communication function which transfers information about suitable technologies to farmers and growers and offers them alternative solutions to improve their situations. The aim is to transform the information into knowledge timely and accurately to create an environment for farmers to use it. IT will be indispensable in transferring information between research and extension organizations.

The main objective of cropping system is to utilize the available resources in an efficient manner. There are several indices to evaluate the yield advantage of cropping system and also to compare the efficiency of different cropping system in terms of land use.

Introduction

The term ‘mycotoxin’ coined in 1962 in the aftermath of death of about 1,00,000 turkey poults in London, due to “Turkey X disease” in 1960, linked to a peanut meal contaminated with aflatoxins. Now, about 300 to 400 toxic fungal metabolites have been identified as mycotoxins, of which some are capable of inflicting deleterious effects to animal and avian health. The most commonly affected feedstuffs are cereals (maize, sorghum, barley, wheat, and rice meal), oilseeds (groundnuts) and oilseed meals (cottonseed meal). There are three major genera of fungi that produce mycotoxins: Aspergilius, Fusarium and Penicillium (Bennett and Klich, 2003). Among these, the Aspergillus species are of much concern as they are responsible for the production of aflatoxins, the most potent fungal toxin causing aflatoxicoses that have detrimental effects on living beings (Barret, 2000).

As per 20th Livestock Census (2019), Punjab has 1.3% share of India’s total livestock. The share of buffaloes was largest (57.4%) in total livestock population, followed by cross-breed cattle and indigenous cattle. The state of Punjab has about 70.60 lakh livestock in total, comprising of 25.41 lakh cattle, 40.16 lakh buffaloes, 3.48 lakh goats, 0.85 lakh sheep, 0.53 lakh pigs, 0.15 lakh horses and ponies, 1644 mules, 471 donkeys and 170 camels. The share of crossbred cattle increased to 29.3% in 2019 compared to 25.4% in 2012 which signifies that the farmers in the state are resorting to high yielding animals for increasing the milk production. These efforts have led to the highest per capita availability of milk in Punjab which stands at 1271 grams per day compared to national average of 444 grams per day (2021-22), although the share of Punjab in country’s milk production is 6.37%. Punjab is sixth largest producer of milk in India, with production of 14.76 million tonnes (t)/year.

Climate change has emerged as one of the most pressing global challenges of our time, with far-reaching consequences for ecosystems, economies, and societies. This has led to the higher temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, sea level rise and growing frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as drought, floods, extreme heat and cyclones resulting in disruption of food supply chains. The most critical domains that impact environmental sustainability includes energy, transport, food, waste and water , although there are disparities in the consumption patten of high-income and low income countries. Apart from the food domain (33% of total GHG emissions), meat from ruminants and dairy products constitute the major proportion of carbon footprint. Although only 18% of calories are obtained from meat and dairy products, but they together account for 60% of agriculture’s greenhouse gas emissions and occupy 83% of the world’s arable land. With 18% of anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, the livestock sector has been identified as one of the primary causes of climate change and the dairysector accounts for around 3.0- 5.1% of the total GHG emissions globally.

Introduction

Creativity and innovation are planned alternatives that an entrepreneur can use to promote his business. Business is a creative process. Success in business today requires constant innovation. Creating new solutions to problems, and the ability to create new products or services for a changing market, is part of intellectual capital. They also provide a company or business organization with a competitive advantage. Creativity is the basis of creativity. It is a process and skill that can be developed and managed throughout the organization.

Learning Objectives

• Describe the different types of creativity and Innovation

• Explain the process of creativity and phases of innovation

Creativity Definition

Creativity has different meanings. Many researchers have said that creativity is the generation of new ideas that include a creative process or a new solution to a problem and the original resolution of problems. It can also be said that the installation of the innovative solution is easy.

“A Message of Wisdom from Dead to Living”
Postmortem examination is systematic exposure and scientific examination of tissue and organs of an animal carcass or cadaver or dead body to determine the nature, extent and cause of death. It is an important diagnostic procedure which supports the diagnosis of a disease in an animal flock or herd. Several times the clinical diagnosis alone may not be sufficient to determine the process of disease occurrence. In such cases gross and histopathological investigations may give a valuable outlook to understand the mechanism of the disease process.
Role of necropsy examination
1) Critical necropsy examination complements the clinical medicine by providing a sure short supplement to the clinicians and students.
2) Necropsy examination pave a path for rational diagnosis of cause of death.
3) Necropsy examination helps to assess the line of treatment and diagnostic protocols followed during the illness.
4) Systemic necropsy examination helps to understand the pathogenesis of disease condition in a better manner.
5) Necropsy examination of animals died in a particular region helps to prevent the life of several animals in future.
6) Thorough necropsy examination in animals is an important tool to provide an expert advice to issue Insurance Certificate.
7) Post-mortem examination is often helpful to investigate the death of the animals counted under vetro-legal or forensic aspects.

The Crop Weather Calendar (CWC) is arguably one of the most practical and indispensable tools developed within agricultural meteorology. It transcends simple weather data by synthesizing comprehensive information about a specific crop’s entire life cycle with the historical climate patterns and recommended agricultural practices for a particular geographical area, typically an agro-climatic zone or even a district. More than just a timetable, it serves as a strategic blueprint that guides farmers and agricultural professionals toward optimized, resilient, and sustainable farming (Fig. 4.1).Imagine it as a detailed annual planner for a specific crop, where every entry is backed by decades of climate data and agronomic research. 4.2 Crop Weather Calendar: A Deeper Dive

Surgery stands as first choice for the treatment of canine mammary tumours. The simplest surgical procedure in the mammary gland should be performed (MacEwen, 1989) in the absence of metastatic disease and inflammatory carcinoma. Nevertheless the controversy for performing simple or radical technique still goes unabated, as the published data are to clear to prove the practical value of radical surgery compared to simple mastectomy. Brodey et al. (1983) is reported that six categories of surgical excision of mammary tumours can be performed.

Introduction

Anthurium is a perennial herbaceous plant of great beauty and grown either for its showy cut flower or for attractive foliage. They are valued for their colourful long lasting spathe and spadix. It is also known as Flamingo flower or Flamingo lily. In India the cut flowers of Anthurium andreanum are cultivated for considerable length of time. Its commercial cultivation is concentrated in North-eastern states and Kerala. The anthurium is getting increasing popularity in the Indian market and therefore, most of the locally produced anthurium is sold in the domestic market against reasonable prices. Its export possibility appears very promising as the flowers are already exported to the Middle East. The development of main flower distribution center in Dubai offers important possibilities for Indian floriculture.

There is ever increase in the demand for good quality food product with improved quality and shelf life. Over the years, packaging have brought out a revolution in the marketing and distribution of food products including fish. Among the food categories, seafood ranks 3^rd with respect to consumption which explains the importance of fish. Fish is a vital source of food for people. It is the most important single source of high-quality protein, providing approximately 16% of the animal protein consumed by the world’s population (Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), United Nations, 1997). By any measure, fishes are amoung the world’s most important natural resources. Annual exploitation from wild populations exceeds 90 million tones, and total annual trade exceeds $ US 55 billion. Additionally, with over 25000 known species, the biodiversity and ecological roles of fish are being increasingly recognized in aquatic conservation, ecosystem management, restoration and aquatic environmental regulation.

Like any other food commodities, fish is one of the highly perishable items which undergoes spoilage if sufficient care is not taken. Various preservation methods have been in place to overcome the spoilage of fish. Chilling and refrigeration is the most preferred preservation method as it helps in preserving fresh like quality. Chilling or icing is reducing the temperature of fish so as to prolong the lag phase of bacteria and helps in reducing the spoilage rate. Fish being one of the most perishable foods, its freshness is rapidly lost even when stored under chilled conditions. Further, consumers demands to have fish in as fresh a state as possible so that the characteristics flavours are retained. Bulk transportation of fresh fish in ice has several limitations like limited extension of shelf life, unnecessary expenditure on freight due to ice, difficulty in handling and maintaining hygienic conditions due to leaching of ice melt water with leaching losses of soluble nutrients and flavouring compounds. Proper packaging will help in improving the keeping quality of fish. Packaging is an important aspect for improving the shelf life and marketability. Packaging enhances the consumer acceptability and hence saleability of the product. Traditionally, food packaging is meant for protection, communication, convenience and containment. The package is used to protect the product from the deteriorative effects of the external environmental conditionals like heat, light, presence or absence of moisture, pressure, microorganisms, and gaseous emissions and so on. Packaging is an integral part of the food processing and plays an important role in preventing or reducing the generation of waste in the supply of food. Packaging assists the preservation of the world’s resources through the prevention of product spoilage and wastage, and by protecting products until they have performed their function. Basic requirements of a package are good marketing properties, reasonable price, technical feasibility, utility for food contact, low environmental stress, and suitability for recycling. Simply packing fish is suitable packaging material will enhance the shelf life of chilled and refrigerated fish to 7 to 15 days depending on fish species. However, in the normal packaging the spoilage process will be accelerated due to presence of O₂ in the normal air packing. Alteration in the package atmosphere will help in overcoming the problem of shelf life, which can be achieved by vacuum packaging or modified atmosphere packaging.

In the 19th century, Etienne Geoffroy de Saint Hilaire conducted pioneering studies on prenatal anomalies such as cyclocephaly, anencephaly, and twin monsters, and is credited with coining the term 'teratology'. The physician Josef Warkany is considered the father of experimental teratology. His studies led to the definition of both genetic and environmentally induced structural defects. The occurrence of congenital malformations varies significantly across species, breeds, and geographic locations. Studies suggest that approximately 1.5% to 6% of live-born domestic mammals exhibit recognizable congenital malformations. These malformations range from complex anatomical abnormalities to complicated enzyme defects detectable only through advanced molecular diagnostics. Occurrence of these malformation is very low in cat while in sheep, cattle and horses it is almost 3-4 % and highest in dogs and pigs and is range about 6%. The genesis of congenital malformations is understood as interplay between an embryo's genetic makeup and its developmental environment. Teratology thus highlights the critical periods during embryonic development when external influences can significantly impact normal growth and formation, underscoring the delicate balance between genetic predisposition and environmental factors in shaping fetal development. Teratogens are those substances which may cause inheritable birth defect via a toxic effect on an embryo or foetus. These defects include malformation, disruption, deformation and dysplasia which may cause stunted growth, congenital disorders that lack structural malformation. A fundamental principle of teratology is that the susceptibility to teratogenic agents those causing malformations vary with the embryo's developmental stage at the time of exposure. Exposure during the first three weeks of gestation (stage of preformation), when the basic body plan is established, typically results in early embryonic death or is compensated for by regulatory mechanisms within the embryo. Agents that disrupt the morula or blastocyst stages, or interfere with embryo maternal communication and proper implantation in the uterine mucosa, often lead to early embryonic mortality. The severity of malformation is depends on the frequency and dose of the teratogens. Most of the teratogens affect the embryo during early differentiation and organogenesis stage. It has been found that the organogenesis of urogenital system of bovines, equine, canines, porcine and felines are most susceptible for teratogenic agents.

INTRODUCTION
In order to turn grains into flour and create a variety of food products, including bread, cakes, pasta, and other baked goods, a flour mill is used to prepare goods. Depending on the type of grain (wheat, corn, etc.) and the intended end product, the process also entails cleaning, milling, and occasionally additional flour refinement.
GRAIN SELECTION AND CLEANING
To get rid of dust, stones, husks, and other foreign objects, the grains must be cleaned before milling:
• Cleaning: To guarantee that only premium grains are fed into the milling process, grains (usually wheat, corn, or other cereals) are cleaned using devices like air separators, sieves, or rotary cleaners.
• Pre-conditioning: In certain situations, moisture is added to the grains to condition them, softening them and increasing milling efficiency.
Wheat Flour Production Process A Step by Step Approach
Grading
Using cutting-edge equipment, the skilled millers evaluate and analyze the wheat when it gets to the flour mill. Wheat samples are prepared for chemical and physical examination. When grading wheat, many factors are taken into account, but the most crucial one is the protein content. Following this procedure, millers keep the same-grade wheat in silos until they need it for milling.
Purifying
To get rid of impurities, such as sticks, stones, and other fine materials, the wheat is meticulously cleaned. The purified wheat is now prepared for conditioning.

The constitution of different solutions plays a significant role in successful demonstration of anatomical techniques especially the special stains. The sincerety begins at the time of fixation of the tissues and deviation at any step may lead to failure of procedure. The chemical reagents required for a particular method have been enlisted at their sites however; the commonly used chemicals are comprehended at one place for convenience of the users.

Milk fermentation is process by which a change is produced in milk through the activity of microorganism. As milk leaves the udder it serves as a medium for the growth of many species and accordingly undergoes a series of changes, the processes producing these changes constitute the milk fermentation.

Fermentation of organic compounds, especially in the lack of oxygen leads to the rapid break-down of ‘biopolymers’ to produce ‘anaerobic food chains’.

Project Appraisal : Assessing Project Benefits

Project appraisal helps to determine which among various projects one is to accept and which to reject. This is however possible only when costs and benefits have been identified, priced, and valued. A number of techniques of project appraisal can be discussed under two heads :

Meaning and Definitions

Agricultural journalism refers to the specialized field of journalism focused on reporting, analyzing, and disseminating information related to agriculture, farming, rural development, and related topics. It plays a crucial role in educating and informing the public, policymakers, and stakeholders about the agricultural sector, its challenges, innovations, and contributions to society.

Here are a few definitions of agricultural journalism.

Ice Bank Cooler: Air forced cooler leads to desiccation of the produce. So use forced air high humidity cooler and these are known as Ice Bank Cooler. Ice bank Coolers are useful for strawberry.

Ice bank cooling: Storing of fruit and vegetable in storage chamber with positive ventilation and system countries where ice formation is allowed during night time (as electricity cost of night is less as compared to the day time). Melting of ice occurs during day time and with proper air circulation by means of ventilation process, approximately 0.5-10C temperature with 90% RH in the chamber is maintained. Ice Bank Cooler / Air forced cooler leads to desiccation of the produce (Plate 205). So use forced air high humidity cooler and these are known as Ice Bank Cooler. Ice bank coolers are useful for strawberry.

Ice cream cone: A thin crisp edible cone for holding ice cream and filled with ice cream.

Ice cream: Ice cream may be define as frozen dairy product made by suitable blending and processing of cream and other milk products together with sugar and flavour.

Ice point: It is the temperature of equilibrium between ice and water under normal atmospheric pressure (0oC).

Ichthylogy: It is the branch of the zoology that deals with the study of fishes (Pisces).

Introduction

Salinity is a significant abiotic stress faced by plants, particularly in semi-arid and arid regions of the world, where annual evaporation exceeds precipitation. In addition, approximately half of all the world’s irrigated areas are subjected to secondary salinization, alkalization, and waterlogging. About 8.85 million ha of land in India is degraded due to salinity and alkalinity problems. Besides the naturally occurring salt-affected soils, the extent of man-made salinized soil is also significant. Salt accumulation in the root zone layers of soils becomes a major constraint to agricultural productivity. However, such lands can effectively be utilized for salt-tolerant biological systems.

To survive under high salt concentrations, some plant species evolved well adapted morphological and physiological characteristics, allowing them to proliferate in saline environments. These species are known as halophytes. Halophytes constitute a small fraction of total plant species; they represent a wide diversity of plant forms and habitats and are of immense significance in expanding salinity problems and decreasing freshwater supply for agriculture. These salt-tolerant species possess enormous taxonomical plant forms and habitat diversity. Taxonomically, the species belonging to Poaceae, Cyperaceae, Chenopodiaceae, and Asteraceae families constitute a significant share of salt tolerant species of north-western hot arid regions of India. In the herbaceous plant group, the species of the family Poaceae are most abundant. In the case of woody perennials, Chenopodiaceae, Tamaricaceae, and Salvadoraceae families are essential as true halophyte and facultative halophyte species.

Sodium (Na), potassium (K), and chloride (Cl) are essential electrolytes that play critical roles in maintaining fluid balance, acid-base homeostasis, nerve transmission, and muscle function in animals. Imbalances in these electrolytes, whether due to deficiency or excess, can lead to serious health issues that affect productivity and well-being. This chapter discusses the disorders associated
with sodium, potassium, and chloride imbalances in animals, their causes,
symptoms, and nutritional management strategies.
1. Sodium disorders
Sodium is the primary extracellular cation and is crucial for maintaining osmotic pressure, fluid balance, and nerve signal transmission.
a) Hyponatremia (Sodium deficiency)
Causes
1. Dietary deficiency: Inadequate sodium in feed or water.
2. Excessive loss: Through sweat, diarrhea, vomiting, or prolonged lactation.
3. Dilutional hyponatremia: Excessive water intake diluting sodium levels.