eChapters

Introduction

India is the seventh-largest country in the world, with a total area of 3,287,263 square kilometres, roughly 2.5 percent of global landmass but is home to 17.9 percent of global human population and 1/5 of the livestock. Most of this increase in human population has occurred in second half of 20th century. Similarly, India has the highest number of cattle (210.2 m), buffaloes (111.3 m) and goats (150.4 m) in the world. It ranks second in sheep (74 m), fifth in chickens (866 m) and sixth in ducks (26 m). The increased population and associated increased demand of resources has led to significant impact on land use-land cover and has consequence in negatively impacting various ecosystem services i.e., hydrology, soil conservation, wildlife support, biodiversity and environmental protection, these agroforestry systems used to provide. Agroforestry has traditionally been a way of life and livelihood in India for centuries. Now it is a modern science inviting deliberate management of trees on farms and surrounding landscape (Bargali et al. 2009; 

Appendix-'E'    :    How can Cummunity Reduce Carbon 
            Footprints

Appendices
    
I.    Released Varieties/Hybrids in Aromatic Crops from KAU
     P. Skaria Baby, P.P. Joy, Samuel Mathew, Ancy Joseph and Ragina Joseph 
    
IIa.    Released Varieties of Fruit Crops in India
    T. Radha
    
IIb    Released Varieties of Arid Fruits
    S.K. Sharma
    
III.    Released Varieties of Ornamental Plants
    P.K .Valsala Kumari 
    
IVa.    Released Varieties of Coconut
    P. Maheswarappa
    
IVb.    Release Varieties of Cocoa
    P. Maheswarappa
    
IVc.    Released Varieties of Plantation Crops
    P. Maheswarappa
    
Va    Released Varieties of Spices from Kerala Agricultural University (KAU)
    Asha Sankar 
        
Released Varieties of Spice Crops Through All India Coordinated Research Project on Spices
    K. Nirmal Babu
    
Vb    Released Varieties of Spice Crops Through All India Coordinated Research Project on Spices
    K. Nirmal Babu
    
VI    Released Varieties of Vegetables from KAU
    T.R. Gopalakrishnan
    
VII.    Research and Educational Infrastructure in Horticulture in India
    P.G. Sadhan Kumar and S. Nirmala Devi
    
VIII.    Important Websites in Horticulture
    T. Pradeepkumar 
    
VIIIa.    Horticulture Institutes in India
    T. Pradeepkumar 
    
IX.    Vital Statistics on Horticultural Crops
    National Horticulture Board, Gurgaon, Haryana
    
X.    Nutritional Values of Horticultural Crops
        Indian Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad

India has rich diversity of goat genetic resources and as per 20^th livestock census (2019), there are 148.88 million goats in India. They are mostly found in arid and semi-arid regions of the country and one of the mainstay of dryland agriculture system. Out of 148.88 million, around half of them (75 to 60 million goats) are found in Rajasthan (20.84 m), Uttar Pradesh (14.48 m), Madhya Pradesh (11.06 m), Maharashtra (10.6 m), Tamil Nadu (9.89 m) Karnataka (6.17 m) and Gujarat (4.66 m). Out of total goat population, only 35 % of the goats are of either pure breed or upgraded nature resembling the some of the local breeds. There is huge scope to improve the productivity through use of assisted reproductive tools like artificial insemination and estrus synchronization in field condition to upgrade the non-descript population in relatively shorter period of time as compared to natural services.

INTRODUCTION

Grape (Vitis vinifera L.) is one of the important fruit crop in world grown commercially in temperate, tropical and sub-tropical regions. At present, it is one of the major horticultural industries over an area of 7.5 million hectares. Grape berries are attractive for their unique flavour and are utilized in many different ways, so its cultivation is becoming more popular. Approximately 71% of world grape production is used in wine industry, 27% as fresh fruits and only 2% as dried fruit. China is the largest producer of grapes followed by Italy, USA, France and Spain. In world, India hold 9th position in grapes production with an annual production of 2822.78 thousand MT.Peninsular India comprise of accounts for 90 % area under grapes. India has the distinction of having highest productivity (21.4 MT/ha) of grapes in the world

Abstract

Water is the elixir of life, livelihood, food security and indispensable to all economic activities. It is going to be a constraint in agriculture in near future due to the competitive demands from other sectors. Agriculture is the largest user of limited water resources. The Gangetic Bengal basin once described as the areas of excess water now suffers from acute dearth of water during the drier months. Water management holds the key for maximum agricultural production through optimizing the utilization of available water resources in a systematic manner. Drip-irrigation provides unique agronomic, water and energy conservation benefits that address many of the challenges facing irrigated agriculture. In intensive agriculture, both fertilizer and irrigation management have contributed immensely in increasing the yield and quality of crops. The method of fertilizer and irrigation application affects the efficiency. Drip-fertigation is the most efficient and less expensive agronomically sound method of fertilizer application along with irrigation water. It has the potential to ensure that the right combination of water and nutrient is available at the active root zone, in synchrony of the plants’ total and temporal requirements and stabilizes the yield and quality of produce. Fertigation saves fertilizer nutrients as it permits applying fertilizer in small quantities at a time matching with the plants’ nutrients’ need. To address these problems, AICRP on Irrigation Water Management, 

Introduction

Earth was a beautiful landscape but man has ruthlessly exploited for his greed specially, in the last century. With rapid industrialization and random urbanization environmental pollution has become a serious problem. Over exploitation of open spaces, ever-increasing number of automobiles and demographic pressure has further aggravated the problem.
 
According to The Hindu, on December 1, 2015 a blanket of smog surrounded Beijing, China, later this smog covered one tenth of China’s area. This situation was recently seen in Delhi, after diwali. It was reported that suspended particulate matter (SPM) content in the air was 14-16 times higher than the permissible limits. So, one of the ways to mitigate this pollution is plating of trees and shrubs as green corridors for abatement of pollution and improvement of environment is an effective way.

Introduction

Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are the atmospheric trace gases which absorb and emit infra-red radiation and thereby trapping the heat radiated from the earth surface. The commonly known agriculturally important GHGs are carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O). The major anthropogenic sources of CO₂ emission in atmosphere are biosphere, burning of fossil fuels and land use changes in tropical forests. The atmospheric concentration of CO₂ has increased from 280 parts per million by volume (ppmv) in 1750 to 394 ppmv in 2012 and is currently increasing at the rate of 1.9 ppmv year-1 (NOAA, 2012). Atmospheric CH₄ concentration has increased from about 715 to 1826 parts per billion by volume (ppbv) in 2012 over the same period and is increasing at the rate of 7 ppbv year-1 (IPCC, 2007; EPA, 2013). Similarly, the atmospheric concentration of N₂O has increased from about 270 ppbv in 1750 to 325 ppbv and is increasing at the rate of 0.8 ppbv year-1 (IPCC, 2007; EPA, 2013).

Introduction

Climate change and climatic variability are expected to reduce agricultural productivity and threaten food security of the world, particularly in developing countries. Producing enough food for the increasing population in a background of decreasing resources and a changing climate scenario, is a challenging task. Agriculture, forestry and land use change account for about 30% of greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions. Therefore, mitigation of GHGs emission while enhancing production is another challenge in agriculture.
 
Conservation agriculture (CA), with the three core inter-linked principles of minimizing mechanical soil disturbance, enhancing organic matter cover on soil and diversification of crops, is a viable option for sustainable agriculture with an effective solution to climate change adaptation and mitigation. The principles can be integrated and applied into most of the rainfed and irrigated production systems including horticulture, agro-forestry, organic farming, rotational farming and integrated crop-livestock systems to strengthen ecological sustainability. Worldwide about 105 Mha land is under CA and the area is increasing. However countries like USA, Brazil, Argentina, Canada and Australia occupy about 90% of the area under CA. The CA, which is advocated as an alternative to the conventional production system for improving productivity and sustainability, is now adopted by many countries and agencies as a lead model for sustainable agricultural intensification.

Abstract

Nadia district covers 3927 sq km of West Bengal State and forms lower part of Indo-Gangetic alluvium of Quaternary age. The district is entirely affected by arsenic contamination in ground water. Population explosion, rapid agricultural growth and inadequate surface water resources has put tremendous thrust on ground water development. 80% of the population is dependent on agriculture. Ground water plays a key role to yield substantial agricultural growth. Irrigational potential of the district is 3356 sq km, of which major contribution belongs to ground water only, i.e., 3100 sq km. Summer season (boro) (lean period crop) paddy cultivation demands huge ground water. Shallow tube wells within 80 metre depth are major in numbers than deep (beyond 100 metre) tube wells. Dynamic ground water resource calculation indicates that net ground water available in the area is 198948 ham, of that for irrigation purposes ground water draft is 167617 ham. Net ground water available for future irrigation development is 34996 ham. Out of 17 blocks of the district, six blocks have already been listed under semi-critical category. 

INTRODUCTION
 
Growth and development are often used interchangeably, however, these describe separate events during the life cycle of a plant. To understand these precisely, let us take the example of multicellular organisms like annuals, monocarpic or flowering plants (angiosperms) including fruits, vegetables, flowers etc. which begins their life from a single cell fertilized egg, the zygote. The zygote develops into embryo through the cell division and differentiation. When we sow the seed in garden or pots, in a few days a young seedling emerge. With the passage of time, the seedling grow in size, the number of leaves increases, in perennial plants branching occurs for few years, and after putting forth the requisite vegetative growth plant begins flowering, produces fruits, seeds and finally the plant senesce at certain period. Generally three terms “growth”, differentiation” and “development” are used to describe the different events during the life cycle of a plant.

A. Bhattacharya    
    
4.1.    Factors of Abiotic Stress
    
4.2.    Light
    
4.3.    Temperature
    
    4.3.1.    Heat-stress Threshold
    4.3.2.    Low Temperature Stress
    4.3.3.    Plant Responses to Heat Stress
    
4.4.    Water
    
    4.4.1.    Drought
    4.4.2.    Flooding
    
4.5.    Soil
    
    4.5.1.    Soil Type
    4.5.2.    Soil pH
    4.5.3.    Soil Fertility
    4.5.4.    Soil Salinity
    
4.6.    Growth and Development
    
    4.6.1.    Phases of Development Sensitive to Temperature or Photoperiod
    
4.7.    Phenology
    
    4.7.1.    Changes in Phenology of Cropping Systems
    4.7.2.    Effect of CO2 on Flowering
    4.7.3.    Temperature and Effects on Phenology
    4.7.4.    Effect of Salinity
    
4.8.    Molecular/Genetic Aspects of Flowering Response to Climate Change
    
4.9.    Simulation of Phenology for Future Climate
        
    References

INTRODUCTION

Guava (Psidium guajava L.) is an important fruit crop of India. It is a tropical fruit but also grows well under sub-tropical conditions. Guava is one of the commonest fruits liked by all the people and is known as ‘Apple of Tropics’. It is one of the major fruit of India and considered the fifth most important fruit in area and production after mango, citrus, banana and apple. Guava is quite hardly, prolific bearer and highly remunerative fruit which needs relatively less care as compared to other fruits. It excels most of other fruit crops in productivity and food value and as such has wide adaptability to soil and climatic conditions. Guava is such a fruit which is practically grown all over the country on commercial scale and especially in kitchen gardens and near the tubewell premises. The best quality of guava in India is grown in the area around Allahabad. Guava bear heavy crop every year and offer handsome economic return to growers.

1.    Introduction
    
2.    The Scenario in India
    
3.    The Concept of Hygiene in Indian Food Industry
    
4.    Food Safety- The Reality
    4.1      Food import inspection and certification
    4.2     Laboratories for export certification
    4.3      Food export inspection & certification
    
5.    What is HACCP? & What is in Practice?
    
6.    Where We Stand?

7.    Success of Application of Food Safety Management System
    7.1.    Pre-requisites for HACCP
    
8.    Logical Steps of HACCP
    8.1      Assemble HACCP team
    8.2     Describe product
    8.3     Identify intended use
    8.4     Construct flow diagram
    8.5     On site confirmation of flow diagram
    8.6     Principles of HACCP
    
9.    Conclusion
    
References
    
Further References

Index
    
About the Editors

1    Normal haemotological values

2    Blood biochemical values

Introduction
 
Food production systems in India are becoming increasingly vulner-able to climate variability and change which are largely characterized by altered frequency timing and magnitude of precipitation and temperature that trigger a series of other devastating events. High rates of snow and glacial melting, frequent floods and droughts, heat waves, hail and increased incidence of pests and diseases are already causing widespread damage and losses to agricultural sector in tropical and sub-tropical countries including India. Overwhelming direct damage to crops and livestock within few minutes can be caused by extreme weather events such as hail, wind­storm, or heavy frost. While occurrence, losses and post disaster management have been discussed extensively for natural calamities such as excess rainfall, drought and flood, little attention has been given to hail storm.

The various steps involved in frozen semen technology are vital as the quality of semen determines the conception rate.  The key factor enabling the successful long term storage of frozen spermatozoa is maintenance at ultra low temperature.  Effective semen storage depends heavily on good identification and stock control.  Frozen semen can be easily damaged in the process of repeated handling to establish identity.

India, as a developing country has reasons to be concerned about the adverse impact of climate change on its economy. A large part of its population depends on climate sensitive sectors for livelihoods which makes it highly vulnerable to climate change. Climate change can have serious impact on its crops, forests, coastal regions, etc. which can in turn affect the achievement of its important national development goals. The issue of climate change cannot however be taken up without linking it to developmental needs such as poverty, health, energy access and education. Traditionally climate change experts have focused on mitigation measures, adaptation measures have also been acknowledged of late as effective and equitable means to deal with climate change impacts. Most of the mitigation measures are high in terms of technology and capital. Therefore, while developed economies choose to mitigate climate change by making heavy investments, developing economies choose to adapt (Monika and Hooda, 2018). There is increasing recognition that the world’s current progress on reducing greenhouse gas emissions is not occurring rapidly enough to avoid impacts from climate change in the coming century. Because of this, the world is “committed” to a certain level of global warming and therefore,

Occasionally some diseases can be noticed in male animals, which are responsible for the reduced reproductive performance of the bucks. Sometimes these diseases can damage or obstruct the male reproductive passage and responsible for the infertility and sterility in the bucks. This type of infertility may be associated with pathology of testes, epididymis, vas deferens, accessory sex glands, and urethra or may be associated with abnormal semen production due to congenital or hereditary causes or due to acquired causes.

Heat stress induced by climate change is a serious issue of livestock industries worldwide (Bajagai, 2011). When environmental temperatures move out of the thermo-neutral zone (or comfort zone) animals begins to experience either heat stress or cold stress. Both these stresses require the animals to increase the amount of energy used to maintain the body temperature so that less energy is available for productive processes. Atmospheric temperature, relative humidity, air movement and solar radiation are the major factors that determine the heat load on animal. Thermoregulation is the ability of the animals to maintain their body temperature in cold or hot environments. It consists of behavioural, physiological and anatomical responses that affect energy metabolism. At lower temperature as a physiological adjustment to maintain the body temperature the animal increases the metabolic heat production by increasing the basal metabolic rate and uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation. Hence the maintenance energy requirement of animals increases in a cold environment, which reduces the amount of energy available for production. From a practical point of view higher temperatures are much more dangerous for producing animals than a cold environment. Temperatures exceeding the higher critical level compromise animal performance not only by changing the energy and nutrient metabolism, but also by upsetting the body homeostasis, with detrimental consequences both for immune competence and for product quality. In general, livestock with high production potential are at greatest risk of heat stress, and require most attention.