eChapters

INTRODUCTION

Fishing is one of the oldest professions of humans. As the day went by, the fish farmers carry out their own indigenous technology as a common practice through natural resource management. In this line, different traditional fishing communities of West Bengal gained a vast experience in every sphere of aquaculture. Their innovation is based on their own knowledge derived from their day to day effort of solving problems. Actually this indigenous knowledge is the accumulated information, skill and technology of the local farmers derived from the close interaction with the nature. The intimate interaction of the farmers with aquatic ecosystems through their age old practices has developed huge expertise which is essential to be documented and disseminated. It will be helpful for aqua resource management as they can be shared in a, cost effective, eco-friendly as well as socio economically viable proposition.

Identification of key communicators
For effective introduction of innovations and transfer of technology among farmers, effective communication is the prime need. An extension worker passes his information more effectively if he communicates with farmers/livestock owners through local leaders and key communicators.
Leader:  Is a person who effectively influences a group to cooperate in setting and achieving the goal.
Leadership: Leadership is a process by which an individual influence, guide and direct the thought, feelings and impressions in desired way.
Key communicators: Key communicator is a person who has maximum information about his society and vicinity area on different aspects.

Objective
After performing this experiment you will be able to learn:
Identification of paper and paperboard.

Introduction

Paper can be broadly classified into two categories: coarse papers, which are normally made of unbleached Kraft softwood pulp and used for packing, and f ine papers, which are usually composed of bleached pulp and used for writing paper, bond, ledger, book, and cover sheets.

The main types of packaging papers are:

Kraft paper

Usually produced on a Fourdrinier machine, kraft paper is gritty and incredibly strong. It is then either machine-glazed on a Yankee dryer or machine-finished on a calendar. Sometimes it isn't calendared so that the rough surface will keep the bags from slipping over one another when they're stacked on pallets.

Mange or parasitic dermatitis is caused by the infestation of mange mites e.g. Sarcoptes, Psoroptes, Demodex spp. and a range of other mites. The condition is characterized by itching and rubbing of the infested parts of the body against hard objects. Lesions include hair loss, dry, rough, thickened and wrinkled skin accompanied by the presence of scab and foul odour in some cases. Some mites burrow into the host epidermis (Sarcoptes) while others spend their entire life cycle on the skin surface (Psoroptes). Most mites are microscopic or less than 1mm in length; therefore skin scrapings are taken from the affected area of animals suspected to be suffering from mange or parasitic dermatitis

Mange or parasitic dermatitis is caused by the infestation of mange mites e.g. Sarcoptes, Psoroptes, Demodex spp. and a range of other mites. The condition is characterized by itching, rubbing of the infested parts of the body against hard objects. Lesions include hair loss, dry, rough, thickened and wrinkled skin accompanied by the presence of scab and foul odour in some cases. Some mites burrow into the host epidermis (Sarcoptes) while others spend their entire life cycle on the skin surface (Psoroptes). Most mites are microscopic or less than 1mm in length; therefore skin scrapings are taken from the affected area of animals suspected to be suffering from mange or parasitic dermatitis.

ABSTRACT

The study was aimed to identify and delineate the groundwater potable zone in and around Madurai region. The study area is composed of Charnockites and Khondalites of Archaean age. The information of lithology, geomorphology and land use/land cover was generated using the Resourcesat (IRS P6 LISS IV data) and Survey of India (SoI) toposheets of scale 1:50,000 and integrated them with GIS to identify the groundwater potable zones of the study area. On the basis of hydrogeomorphology, groundwater potential zones was identified and delineated. From the overlay analyses landuse and EC, it is inferred that, poor category groundwater is found in the scrub forest, current fallow, canal and scrub with land areas.

Abstract

High Altitude zone is comprised of 40 mandals distributed in parts of Srikakulam, Vishakhapatnam, East Godavari and Khammam districts of Andhra Pradesh covering a geographical area of 1.8 m. ha. The area of this zone lies between 50 to 1680 MSL and is characterized by high slopes, mountains, hills and hillocks as part of Eastern Ghats. Red soils are the most predominant type (94.8%). A small area is covered under alluvial soils and coastal sands. The mean annual rainfall ranges from 1245 to 1288 mm of which about 70 per cent is contributed by southwest monsoon. Large geographical area (58.9%) in the zone is under forests and the net cropped area is only 19.2% with very little irrigation sources. The tribal people of this area practice shifting cultivation locally known as “podu” cultivation for their subsistence. Rice is the most important crop in the zone occupying 36.2 per cent of the gross cropped area of 0.42 m. ha. The other principal crops grown are millets, mesta, niger and tuber crops. Tea, coffee and other plantation crops are also grown in addition to aromatic and medicinal plants. Cropping intensity is 120 per cent. Forest produce such as honey, gum, soap nuts, tamarind fetch income to the tribal people (www.angrau.net).

This assignment focuses on various methods in identifying the rural or local leaders in the social system and helps the students in case of identifying the specialized roles of extension workers at grassroot level.

PURPOSE

To identify rural leaders for collecting information about the village.

To assess the role of rural leaders in transferring new technology to the villagers through rural leader.

Objective: To identify salt tolerant genotypes by Glycine Betaine (GB) method in laboratory.

Background information:

Salt or salinity is a biggest danger that causes reduction in crop productivity worldwide. Salinity reduces the germination percentage, plant vigour and ultimately loss in final crop yield. There are different physiological parameters that are affected by high level of salinity viz., oxidative stress, physical alteration of bio-membrane, nutritional imbalance, loss of cell division & cell expansion, water stress, genotoxicity and ion toxicity. Together, these effects reduce plant growth, development and survival. During the onset and development of salt stress within a plant, all the major processes such as photosynthesis, protein synthesis and energy and lipid metabolism are affected. During initial exposure to salinity, plants experience water stress, which in turn reduces leaf expansion (Petronia, et al. 2011).

The water-soluble compounds which, are low in molecular weight, accumulate at certain concentration known as “compatible solutes” or “osmolytes” is the common strategy adopted by many organisms to combat the abiotic stresses. Some common compatible solutes are betaines, sugars (mannitol, sorbitol and trehalose), polyols, polyamines and amino acid (proline). Their accumulation is favored under water-deficit or salt stress as they provide stress tolerance to cell without interfering cellular machinery. The tolerant or sensitive species show difference in the stress tolerance level based on levels of accumulation of these compounds during abiotic stress condition. Accumulation of osmolytes like glycinebetaine (GB) in cells is known to protect organisms against abiotic stresses via osmoregulation or osmoprotection. Other roles of GB like cellular macromolecule protection and ROS detoxification have been suggested as mechanisms responsible for abiotic stress tolerance. In addition, GB also influences expression of several endogenous genes in plants.

In sericulture it is the larval life that is of direct importance to the rearer since he has to take care of the worms very carefully. The larval life may last from 20-24 days in the case of the multivoltine species in tropical areas or 24-28 days in the case of uni- and bi-voltine races in temperate areas, being shorter under warmer summer and autumn conditions, and somewhat longer under cooler spring conditions. During the larval life the worm moults or casts off its skin four times to be able so as to grow. There are also varieties of worms which moult three and five times but they are not of importance economically. In view of the four intervening moults, the larval life is divided into five distinct stages or instars (Fig.14.2) which are referred to popularly as five different ages. The first three instars are referred to as young ages and the fourth and fifth instars as late ages.
14.2 Moulting
Each larval instar can be broadly divided into two phases i.e., the feeding phase and the moulting phase. After feeding voraciously and having attained full growth for the particular instar the worm loses its appetite and the larvaprepares to moult and cast off its old skin. Prior to each moulting, the larva  stops feeding and rests with its head held up. The lustrous body skin gradually becomes translucent, loose and wrinkled and the worm becomes dull in appearance and wanders about in search of a resting place. It emits a silky substance with which it fixes itself to dry leaves. The moulting periods last for 20 hours being shortest in the second moult, followed by the first, third and fourth. This resting for moulting is often referred to as going to sleep and the coming out of the worm from moult as waking up. During the moulting period the worms should not be disturbed so that the process of moulting is not interfered with and uniform moulting is ensured.

Abstract

Geochemical processes occurring within the groundwater and reactions with aquifer minerals have a profound effect on water quality. Hydrogeochemical composition of groundwater can also be indicative of its origin and history of passage through underground materials which water has been in contact. Assessing groundwater quality and developing strategies to protect aquifers from contamination are necessary aspects for proper planning and designing water resources. Anthropogenic activities like explosion of population, industrial growth, inputs of fertilizer, pesticides, and irrigation has been a crucial factor for determining the quality of groundwater. In this scenario, 43 groundwater samples were collected from the Dindigul district of Tamilnadu, a Hard rock terrain. The samples wereanalyzed for major cations and anions along with heavy metals to derive the different quality parameters and to obtain the pollution indices of different samples. This study focuses to find out the spatial relationship between the analyzed fluoride concentration in groundwater and pollution indices derived from the heavy metal concentration in the groundwater of the study area and their variation with respect to season.

Objectives

1. To know the botanical and other names of spices and condiments.
2. To identify the family, plant habit and plant part used of spices and condiments.

SOURCES OF LOSSES
In most of the cases of excessive fat or product loss, a combination of several factors rather than any single factor are responsible.
 
Inaccuracy in weighing: Receiving room scales should be checked regularly with a set of weights. The check should be made immediately before weighing operations begin. Improper drainage of the weighbowl will permit a carry over into the next batch dumped, resulting in incorrect weighing. Errors in weight in bulk handling methods may be caused also by improper leveling of the tank, incorrect calibration of the measuring rod, or carelessness on the part of the person taking the measurement.
 
Inaccuracy in sampling: Failure to collect representative samples may sometime cause sizeable losses. Milk should be properly agitated before taking samples. The composite sample should be preserved and refrigerated and should be protected from mould growth.

Abstract

A study on the Subsurface groundwater discharge (SGD) in the coastal Cuddalore region of south east India has been carried out. Measurement of surface water Radon, Water level, Electrical Conductivity (EC) and pH for a total of twenty four hours, by hourly interval the measurement has been calculated and promote correlated with tidal values calculated by WX Tide 32 software. The SGD measurements were made by using a modified seepage meter. The study reveals a match with water level variation and tide with minor variation due to influx of surface water. Saline discharges, fresh groundwater discharges and surface water mixing processes were identified along the coast. Lower SGD (37.24 – 79.16 cm/day) were observed during fresh groundwater discharge.

Objective

To study the salient features of important varieties of spices and condiments.

1. Cardamom

Table 3.1: Released/Recommended Cardamom Selections- Estimated Yield and Source of Variability.

2. Black pepper

Table 3.2: Improved varieties of black pepper and their character

Objective: To identify agriculturally important insect orders and understand their key morphological characteristics relevant to their impact on agriculture.

Objective: To differentiate between locusts and grasshoppers based on their morphometric measurements and behavioral traits.

Concept of Ideotype breeding
In the breeding programme, elite crop varieties are developed through combination of relatively low-frequency alleles which are of known agronomic / horticultural importance (Lyu et al., 2013). During breeding programme, these elite varieties are developed targeting different main objectives, such as yield, product quality, resistance to abiotic and biotic stresses and agronomic suitability.
A crop ideotype is defined as an idealised structural model, combining both morphological and physiological traits, with the potential to maximise yield and quality within a defined environment (Donald, 1968). Ideotype generally include factors that increase the survivability of the plant such as drought resistance, resource use efficiency, root architecture and disease resistance (Arraiano et al., 2006; Rezzouk et al., 2022). Definition of “Ideotype” may be broadened through combination of morphological and physiological traits (or their genetic bases) conferring to satisfying adaptation of a crop to a particular biophysical environment, crop management and end use.