eChapters

Sustainability Issues Regarding Major Marine Raw Materials Used in Aquaculture Diets

In 2018, more than 70% of the fish production is from fed aquaculture where f ish meals (FMs) and fish oils (FOs) are the main marine raw materials used in aquaculture diets or fish feed (Hua et al. 2019). They are derived or reduced products from the catch of small, pelagic, low-priced marine fish (forage fish) like Peruvian anchoveta that are rich in protein, micronutrient and lipid and are commonly termed as the ‘feed grade marine fishery’ (Bell and Waagbø, 2008; Bendiksen et al. 2011). The whole fish or any other f ish processing by-products are either cooked and then pressed to produce a liquid which on centrifuging produce the fish oil or are dried and crushed into powder-like material which is called as the fish meal (FAO, 2020). FM has the enough balance and concentration of essential amino acids and FO are rich in n-3 essential fatty acids especially eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). FM and FO are the main ingredients in aquaculture diets as they are relatively cheap, readily available, accepted and digested by the fish. The highest amount of these ingredients are often used in feeds for the high value aquatic organisms like carnivorous finfish (eg: Dicentrarchus labrax, Rachycendron canadum) (mostly marine), eels, salmonids, trouts, marine shrimps and freshwater crustaceans (see figure 1) etc. (Houlihan et al. 2001; Halver and Hardy, 2002; Miller et al. 2008) which are mainly imported by prosperous countries adding to good seafood trade value. All the intensive aquaculture production systems like recirculatory aquaculture systems, raceway aquaculture systems, aquaponics, cage culture, shrimp ponds etc are the major end users of the marine raw materials.

Turfgrass refers to a group of grass species cultivated to form a dense, uniform ground cover, primarily used in lawns, golf courses, sports fields, parks, and landscape areas. Turfgrass serves both aesthetic and functional purposes, including erosion control, temperature regulation, and dust suppression. Turfgrass ecosystems provide a favorable habitat for various insect pests and mites that affect roots, stems, and leaves, compromising turf quality, appearance, and playability.
Distribution: Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Odisha, and other regions, Mythimna separata (oriental armyworm), is more prevalent in the northern and eastern states.
Biology: Female moths lay eggs in clusters, often between leaf sheaths and blades, especially on dry grass. The eggs are initially pale yellow and darken before hatching. The larvae, also known as armyworms, go through several instars, feeding on grass blades.

DNA is the master molecule which carries the genetic information from one generation to the other. Study of Molecular Genetics accelerated since April 25th, 1953 when James Watson and Francis Crick proposed the structure of DNA which was published in Journal called ‘Nature’. Molecular Genetics deals with the flow of genetic information and its regulation. In simple terms it can be defined as the field of biology which studies the structure and function of genes at molecular level.
Scope of Molecular Genetics
Development of techniques like nucleic acid hybridisation, cloning, sequencing etc. brought a revolutionary change in Molecular Genetics. It is of major interest to the students of biology and medicine. Though it has a lot of significance in many fields, we’ll confine ourselves to the applications of molecular genetics to the mankind. They are as follows:
i) Diagnosis of infectious diseases: Normally microorganisms are detected in the laboratory using biochemical methods. In case of molecular techniques, microorganisms are detected by using probes (short DNA or RNA sequence) which are complementary to a part of genome of the microbe. The advantage of using molecular methods is:
• Identification of pathogen is done within a short time;
• No need to cultivate the microbes;
• Latent infections can also be identified when no antibody is formed; and
• The technique can be used even when the microorganism cannot be cultured.
ii) Diagnosis of genetic diseases : Before the advent of the above techniques, counselors used to give risk estimate like one fourth risk of getting the disease, if the parents are heterozygous for an autosomal trait. But now by directly testing for the mutation, they are able to confirm the presence or absence of mutation in the fetus. It is of immense help in prenatal diagnosis.

Introduction

Marketing as we know plays an important role in the proper utilization of any crop irrespective of its type and variety. Unless and until producer is not able to market his crop efficiently, he will not get the remunerative price for his produce. For the past few years marketing part is getting more attention than production as giving 100 per cent to the production side only will not pay much to the farmers. Proper distribution of the product to its proper place where demand is more and that too in time is also important. Government is also encouraging the farmers for marketing of their produce in a right and effective manner. No doubt every crop is in need of efficient marketing but fruits because of more perishable in nature require advanced marketing facilities.

Introduction

Spatial datasets always exhibit two common features (i) the occurrence of a few very large concentrations (hot-spots) and (ii) the presence of data below the detection limit (black spots). Extreme values can strongly affect the characterization of spatial patterns, and subsequently the prediction. Several approaches exist to handle strongly positively skewed histograms (Saito and Goovaerts 2000). One common approach is to first transform the data (e.g. normal, Box Cox or lognormal), perform the analysis in the transformed space, and back-transform the resulting estimates. Such transform, however, does not solve problems created by the presence of numerous black spot data, since either it yields a spike of similar transformed values or, in the case of the normal-score transform, it requires a necessarily subjective ordering of all equally-valued observations. Moreover, except for the normal score transform (Deutsch and Journel 1998), it does not guarantee the normality of the transformed histogram, which is required to compute confidence intervals for the estimates. Last, the back-transform of estimated moments is not straightforward and can introduce bias if not done properly (Saito and Goovaerts 2000); for example, lognormal kriging estimates cannot simply be exponentiated. Another way to attenuate the impact of extreme values is to use more robust statistics and estimators. The non-parametric approach of indicator kriging (IK) falls within that category (Journel 1983, Goovaerts 2001). The basic idea is to discretize the range of variation of the environmental attribute by a set of thresholds (e.g. deciles of sample histogram, detection limit, regulatory threshold) and to transform each observation into a vector of indicators of non-exceedence of each threshold. Kriging is then applied to the set of indicators and estimated values are assembled to form a conditional cumulative distribution function (ccdf). The mean or median of the probability distribution can be used as an estimate of the concentration of the material in question (Barabas et al. 2001, Cattle et al. 2002, Goovaerts et al. 2005).

Black Pepper

Black pepper (Piper nigrum) is indigenous to the tropical forests of Western Ghats of South India. The crop is grown in Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andra Pradesh and Assam.

The root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and the burrowing nematode, Radopholus similis are important pests of this crop. The root-knot nematode infested vines show yellowing of lower leaves and the leaves loose natural luster. The yellowing of leaves gradually progresses upwards. The affected vine leaves become flaccid and wither. The infested plant root show root galls of varying sizes.

The burrowing nematode also causes serious damage to the vine. Var der Vecht (1950) first reported slow wilt in this crop due to R.similis infestation in Indonesia. The nematode in association with Fusarium and Rhizoctonia causes serious damage to the crop.

7.1 Introduction

The occurrence of extreme weather events like drought and flood is increasing in Bihar due to climate change. Bihar receives nearly 80% of annual rainfall during June to September which is quantitatively enough for growing most of the crops. However, aberration in temporal and spatial distribution of rainfall makes the crops vulnerable to drought as well as flood. Rainfall is the most important factor for planning of crop production in rainfed areas. The information on annual, seasonal and weekly rainfall of a region is helpful to design different agricultural operations like field preparation, sowing, irrigation, fertilizer application as well as overall crop planning (Singh et al., 2008). Zone I and zone II of Bihar are receiving too much rainfall which causes flood in this region whereas zone III B is identified as rainfed region which has low, erratic and uncertain rainfall pattern with frequent dry spells during the monsoon season. Hence kharif cropping is tricky operation in this region and sudden crop failures is a common phenomenon due to frequent dry spell or early withdrawal of monsoon. In India many scientists studied on rainfall probability pattern (Suchit et al., 2012) and they concluded that rainfall occurrence is certain at greater than or equal to 80 % probability, while 50% probability is the medium limit of certainty and may involve dry spell risk. Based on these climatic and probability factors, the study was carried out for four different locations situated in different agro climatic zones of Bihar for interlinking the rainfall probability pattern with the crop planning pattern in those regions.

India is known to be rich source of medicinal plants since ancient time. Medicinal plants like Aloe vera, Aswagandha, basil, mint, cinnamon, etc. are widely used to cure various ailments and for several health benefits. Some of the common diseases like common cold, headache, stomach problem, skin disease, etc. are treated in home by use of various herbs. Medicinal plants can be grown in the backyard or on the rooftop to meet the household demand. Cultivation practices of some of the medicinal plants are described in this chapter.

Tulsi

Tulsi or basil is considered to be a sacred plant with religious importance. It is grown in homes as an aromatic perennial shrub and used for medicinal purpose. Tulsi possess antimicrobial and antiviral properties with capacity to purify the air. It can be grown up to an altitude of 2000 m above mean sea level. This plant can be grown in pots and in home gardens. The leaves and twigs of the plant are used for medicinal purpose. The fragrant leaves and flowers are used in the form of tincture, tea or decoction for curing cold & cough, stomach disorders, skin diseases, etc. The plant is also rich in antioxidant, vitamin and calcium. There are two types of tulsi viz. green type and purple. It can be planted in the pots or in the beds.

Introduction The Asteraceae family includes Lactuca sativa, better known as lettuce, which is cultivated as a leafy vegetable. Due to its usage in the creation of salad, soup, and vegetable curries, this plant is well-known around the world. Additionally, this herb has fantastic therapeutic qualities. Because of its flavor and excellent nutritional content, lettuce is one of the most popular raw green leafy vegetables and is grown all over the world. It is thought to be a crucial source of phytonutrients. Significant physical and genetic differences define it. The Egyptians were the first people to plant this leafy crop. It is currently manufactured all over the world and used in forensic medicine to treat a variety of conditions, including as pain, inflammation and issues with the stomach, as well as urinary tract infections. Its pharmacological potential, which includes antibacterial, antioxidant, neuroprotective, and hypnotic actions, has been scientifically supported by a number of research.

This chapter focuses on split plot and strip plot designs, essential tools in experimental design known for effectively handling complex experiments. It covers the key principles and applications of these designs, emphasizing how they can be used to address specific research challenges. The chapter also provides practical guidance on conducting analyses of split and strip plot designs using R software, making it a valuable resource for researchers seeking to apply these methods in their work.

Split Plot Design

The split-plot design is a statistical approach widely used in experiments where specific conditions apply:

• Hierarchical arrangement of treatments: This design is ideal for experiments involving two levels of experimental units, typically “whole plots” and “subplots.” The main treatments are applied to the whole plots, while the sub-treatments are applied within these to the subplots.

• Adherence to experimental design principles: The split-plot design follows the principles of randomization, replication, and local control, but with a hierarchical twist. The main treatments are randomized across the whole plots, and the sub-treatments are randomized within these main plots. • Resource management in unequal experimental conditions: This design is particularly useful when some factors require larger experimental units or when changing levels of one factor is more resource-intensive than changing levels of another factor.

Wafer: A thin crisp cake, candy, cracker or chips is known as wafer.

Waffle: A crisp cake of batter baked in a waffle iron is called waffle

Warner-Bartzler Shear: It is one of the oldest but commonly used devices used to measure the tenderness of meat. It is used to test the quality in the cooked meat (Plate 648).

Wastage: Wastage is a term that cannot be precisely defined by even moral value / judgment and defined on the context / situation on which it is used.

Waste water: Water that has been used in a manufacturing process and goes waste is called waste water.

Water: Water (H2 O) is a clear transparent, colourless, odourless and tasteless liquid; neutral in reaction; boils at 100oC, freezes at 0oC and has maximum density (1 g/cm3) at 4oC. It exists as snow, ponds, lake, rivers, seas, oceans etc., also occur as rain and is there in the form of moisture in atmosphere. Pure water is bad conductor of heat and electricity. Water is an essential part of the body structure as a carrier of nutrients and regulator of a number of body functions. Fruit and vegetables contain > 80% water and sometime upto 95% water e.g. cucumber, lettuce, marrow, lettuce, melon. The starchy tubers and seeds, for example yam, cassava and cork, contain less water, but even > 50%. So water content must be optimum at the harvesting time. The human body comprises of about 65 % water, while that of fruits and vegetables 80-90% water.

Introduction

One of the biggest problems emerging for the survival of the people in the future is food security. To feed an anticipated nine billion people by 2050, the globe would need to produce roughly twice as much food as it does today. In order to properly accomplish this aim, food production must be elevated sustainably on currently available arable land while addressing the problems brought on by climate change. Over the past five decades, crop yields have steadily increased due to crop breeding programs and better management practices. The rate of yield improvement has, however, reached a plateau (Grassini et al. 2013). The noncompounding yearly yield growth of 0.9% for wheat at the present time, world output rises by 38%, is quite small, and is unable to fulfill expected demand levels by 2050. Therefore, the most beneficial course of action is to investigate more effective, higher-yielding crops (Ray et al. 2013).

Historically, the genetic improvement of wheat has been accomplished by sexual hybridization between related species, giving rise to a large number of cultivars with excellent agronomic performance and high yields. The main methodology for improving cereal crops is still traditional plant breeding, sometimes in combination with traditional cytogenetic methods (Salina et al. 2015). Cereal crops immediately became the top targets for genetic modification due to the worldwide importance of cereal grains in human diets. Over the past 10 years, wheat genetic technology for processing has advanced quickly.

With constantly increasing population and need for food security in the present era, an alternate option to safeguard the nutritional well-being of human civilisation is the utmost necessity of the hour. Aquaponics is a system which combines two food-producing systems such as a recirculatory aquaculture system and hydroponics in such a way, that, the waste of one system is utilised in the other system making it a perfect example of the eco friendly model. This system is a soil-less system which can be set up in small vicinity, providing higher outputs. The designs can be changed according to one’s needs, but the main components of the unit should be kept in mind. The main components consist of a fish tank, mechanical filter, biological filter, hydroponics unit along with sump. Although the hydroponics unit are of various kinds but broadly it can be classified into three main types-1. media bed, 2. Nutrient film technique and 3. Deep water culture. If there is a scarcity of land and water or if the quality of soil is poor, usage of aquaponics will be sustainable.

Introduction

Aquaponics is a combination of hydroponics with recirculatory aquaculture system(RAS) as a single production system. Water with fish wastes coming from the fish tank circulates and passes through the filters, the plant grows on beds and water recycles back to the fish tank in an aquaponic system. At f irst solid waste are removed by mechanic filtration followed by biofiltration for removal of dissolved wastes. Ammonia, which is poisonous to fish, is converted to nitrate, a more readily available fertiliser for plants, by bacteria in the biofilter. The plants absorb nitrate and other nutrients when the water passes through plant growing beds, filtering it prior to its arrival in the fish tank.

Animal models in diabetes research are very common when most of the existing models are developed as a conventional model either for Type 1 or for T2D. But very often a conventional model of diabetes cannot demonstrate the specific pathogenesis of diabetes related complications. Therefore, the necessity of the individual and specific model for diabetic complications has been raised in the recent years to achieve the authentic outcomes of specific research aims. A number of animal models of diabetic neuropathy have been developed in last few decades approaching from diverse point of views. However, most of them did not receive much popularity because of their considerable number of limitations and disadvantages. In a comprehensive review, Harati [4] reported that the major handicap in studying diabetic neuropathies is the lack of a suitable animal model that addresses acute and chronic events leading to diabetic neuropathy. Hence, in this review, the pathogenesis, advantages, disadvantages, and limitations of several genetic and nongenetic animal models of diabetic neuropathy have been discussed to substantiate their efficacy for human study and in order to guide diabetes research groups to more accurately select the most appropriate models to address their specific research questions.

Introduction

India is the largest producer, importer and consumer of pulses in the world, accounting for 25 percent of the global production, 15 per cent trade and 27 per cent consumption, being an inseparable ingredient in the diet of the vast majority of population. Since time immemorial, pulses have been cultivated on marginal and sub-marginal lands, which are characterized by poor soil fertility and moisture stress, and consequently their yield potentials have not been realized. Further, more than 90 per cent areas under pulses are rainfed.

MUTATION BREEDING

Mutation refers to sudden heritable change in phenotype of an organism or permanent change in the number, kind and sequence of nucleotides in genetic material, while individuals showing these changes are known as mutants. Mutation was first discovered by Wright in 1791 in male lamb which had short legs. Hugo de vries coined the term mutation. In crop improvement the breeders are always look for wide range of variability and stabilization of desirable traits. Mutation breeding is very useful in inducing new variability, which is an essential requirement of any plant breeding programme. The modern day cultivars are the resultants of various breeding techniques like selection, hybridization, tissue culture and mutagenesis including some biotechnological tools. Novelty in commercial traits like colour, size, shape, length, post harvest life of flowers etc. are always valued and preferred by consumers. Mutation breeding by exposing planting material with irradiation has play vital role in inducing novelty in a number of flower crops.

ABSTRACT

In the present investigation on three different plant species from pollution and control area were carried act for biochemical analysis such as total chlorophyll content, leaf extract pH, relative water content and ascorbic acid test. The results indicate accordance to order of tolerance index of plant species in air pollution are Macrosolen cochinchinensis, Loranthus parasiticus and Viscum album. The changes in pollution tolerance index are biochemically induced due to the surrounding environmental conditions. Thus, it is observed that Macrosolen cochinchinensis is highly tolerant species among the selected three species. Thus, in future this plant species may play an important role in pollution indicator. APTI analysis show the pollution tolerating decreasing order for there species can be Macrosolen cochinchinensis> Loranthus parasiticus>Viscum album and as ascorbic acid result indicate that Macrosolen cochinchinensis show mostly defence mechanism and highly tolerance level against different kind of pollutant. Besides these three hemiparasite plant species have some valuable ethnomedicinal important. In India tribal people used leaf and stem bark in curing abortion, miscarriage, vaginal bleeding during pregnancy, treat circulatory and respiratory system problems.

Milk lipids or milk fats exist as an emulsion of small spherical droplets called milk fat globules. These globules are very small in size but very large in number. The diameter of the milk fat globules ranges between 0.1 and 22 µm and the number varies between 1.5 and 3.0 billion globules/mL. The average size of milk fat globules ranges from 2 to 5 µm. The average fat globule size in cow and buffalo milk are 3.4 and 4.5 µm, respectively. The surface of the milk fat globules is coated with an adsorbed layer of material known as the milk fat globule membrane (MFGM). MFGM contains phospholipids and proteins in a complex form. MFGM has two main functions (a) fat globule stabilization and (b) preservation of the fat globule’s identity.

General Composition

Triacylglycerols (triglycerides) represent 97–98% of the total lipids in the milk of most species. The diglycerides probably represent incompletely synthesized lipids in most cases. Although phospholipids represent less than 1% of total lipids, they play an important role in being present mainly in the MFGM and other membranous material in milk. The principal phospholipids are phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, and sphingomyelin. Trace amounts of other polar lipids, including ceramides, cerebrosides, and gangliosides, are also present. Phospholipids represent a considerable percentage of the total lipid of buttermilk and skim milk reflecting the presence of proportionately larger amounts of membrane material in these products.

Introduction

In the 21st century aquaculture has become one of the most important booming industries in the world. With just a mere contribution to the worlds fish production in 1960’s, and able to contribute to about nearly 50% in 2021, production from aquaculture has increased manifolds. Successful aquaculture relies on creating a suitable environment for growth of aquatic animals. Water quality has to be the most important component for successful aquaculture production. Throughout the farming period, it is necessary to maintain good water quality to ensure high survival and fast growth of cultured species. There are numerous water quality parameters that can impact the well-being of fish and crustaceans, most of which are discussed in this chapter.

Factors like salinity and water temperature play a critical role in assessing the suitability of a location for the cultivation of specific species. Additionally, factors such as alkalinity, turbidity, phosphorus, and nitrogen hold significance due to their impact on plant productivity, which, in turn, affects aquaculture production. As the cultivation progresses, factors like dissolved oxygen, carbon dioxide, ammonia, and others gain importance, as they have the potential to create stress for the cultured animals. This chapter offers an overview of the presence and behavior of each of these variables in both natural water environments and aquaculture ponds.

Traditional agricultural practices have been an integral part of food production in India since ages. These practices have the potential to mitigate the adverse effects of climate change with spatial and sequential diversity (Patel et al., 2020). Traditional Agriculture can be defined as a primitive style of farming that involves the intensive use of indigenous knowledge, traditional tools, natural resources, organic fertilizer and cultural beliefs of the farmers (Abeysekara et al., 2021). It is noteworthy that it is still used by about 50% of the world population. Traditional agriculture can be defined as a set of knowledge- practice-trust nexus which has developed by its adaptive nature and passes on to the next generation through a cultural transmission that explains the relationship between living beings with their environment (Berkes et al., 2000).