eChapters

Wide hybridization or distant hybridization is crossing between two different species or genera, and has been used successfully to transfer genes and to create new crop species. Wild plant species related to crop plants form an important source of useful traits for quality improvement and biotic and abiotic stress tolerance. Cultivated species has lost many beneficial traits for stress tolerance in the process of domestication and selection, which resulted in uniformity in many agronomic traits. Although there have been multiple cases of valuable tolerant genes being transferred from wild rice to cultivated rice, it is now necessary to look at new breeding and selection strategies that may be applied to wide hybridization. It breaks the species barrier for gene transfer and makes it possible to transfer the genome of one species to another, which results in changes in genotype and phenotype of the progenies. The barriers in wide hybridization occurs as prezygotic and postzygotic barriers. Techniques of chromosome doubling, bridging species, protoplast fusion, and embryo rescue are highly beneficial in recovering fertile progenies by overcoming various barriers in wide crossings. Broadening the gene pool of a crop is an important plant breeding method as it can enhance tolerance of major biotic and abiotic stresses and improve the quality characteristics of the plant.

Natural farming integrates traditional wisdom with ecological sustainability by using on-farm resources, avoiding synthetic inputs, and enhancing biodiversity. Within this framework, tree-based and multi-tier farming systems play a pivotal role in optimizing land use and ensuring environmental balance. These models are especially beneficial for small and marginal farmers in India’s varied agroclimatic zones, offering resilience, productivity, and sustainability.
Tree-based farming incorporates fruit or timber trees—like mango or guava— intercropped with pulses, vegetables, and herbs. This mimics forest ecosystems where diverse species coexist, supporting one another. Trees improve soil quality through leaf litter, reduce erosion, and help conserve moisture. Their canopy creates favorable microclimates for understory crops.
Multi-tier systems structure crops by height: tall trees form the top layer, followed by medium-height plants such as papaya, bushy crops like chillies, and ground-level creepers such as pumpkin. This vertical arrangement maximizes sunlight use and space efficiency, improving overall yield per unit area.
These systems enhance soil fertility, promote nutrient recycling, and reduce crop vulnerability to pests and climate extremes. Practices like mulching, intercropping, and the use of Jeevamrit and Beejamrit are seamlessly integrated, reinforcing soil health and sustainability. Together, they offer a regenerative, income-diversifying strategy for natural farmers across India.

Temperature stands as a fundamental environmental factor profoundly influencing the life cycle of crops, from the initial spark of germination to the final stages of maturation and yield formation. The thermal regime, encompassing the daily and seasonal patterns of temperature, dictates the rate of biochemical reactions within the plant, thereby governing the pace and efficiency of physiological processes crucial for growth and development.
This chapter, „Thermal Regime: Crop Growth and Development,“ will delve into the intricate relationship between temperature and the various phenological stages of crop plants. It will be explored how different cardinal temperatures – the minimum, optimum, and maximum thresholds – dictate the boundaries within which growth can occur and the rates at which developmental milestones are achieved. Understanding the impact of temperature on processes like photosynthesis, respiration, nutrient uptake, and ultimately, yield, is paramount
for optimizing crop production in diverse environments.
Furthermore, we will examine the concepts of heat units or growing degree days, which provide a quantitative framework for predicting crop
development based on temperature accumulation. By appreciating how the thermal environment interacts with genetic potential and other environmental factors, we can gain valuable insights into crop suitability for specific regions, the timing of critical growth stages, and strategies for mitigating the adverse effects of temperature extremes.

In the recent years, rural markets have acquired significance in developing countries like India and China, as well as the overall growth of the economy has resulted into substantial increase in the purchasing power of the rural communities. On account of technological change during 1966-67, rural areas are consuming a large quantity of industrial and urban manufactured products. In this context, a special marketing strategy i.e. rural marketing has taken place. Sometimes, rural marketing is mystified with agricultural marketing the later denotes marketing of agricultural commodities of the rural areas to the urban consumers or industrial consumers, whereas rural marketing involves delivering manufactured or processed inputs or services to rural producers or consumers or rural marketing determines the carrying out of business activities bringing in the flow of goods from urban sectors to the rural regions of the country as well as the marketing of various products manufactured by the non-agricultural workers from rural to urban areas. Also, when we consider the situation of developing countries, there is a picture that comes out, huge market for the development products as well as the labour support.

Chinese big leaf tea (Camellia sinensis var. macrophylla).
Chinese small leaf tea (Camellia sinensis var. bohea)
Shan tea (Camellia sinensis var. Shan)
Indo-China or Cambod tea (Camellia assamica subspecies lasiocalyx)
Indian tea (Camellia sinensis var. assamica)
Family:  Theaceae
Chromosome No.: 2n = 2x = 30
Origin: China (East and South Asia)
Useful Part: Bud and Leaves 

Natural disasters are of meteorological or hydrometeorological origin. Disasters such as earthquakes and tsunamis are occasional, but rainfall-related hazards, flood or drought, are very frequent and thus call for proper monitoring of large-scale rainfall variation, and better manage- ment and planning to combat the problem(s). Variation in rainfall is very large spatially and temporally compared to any other atmospheric parameter, such as pressure or temperature. The large temporal variability in the Indian rainfall has produced frequent flood/drought and periods of above/below normal rainfall for several centuries past. Areas of high rainfall and runoff are flooded in the summer monsoon season whereas others face water stress and drought conditions. The influence of global warming on rainfall variations over India is reported in numerous observational (Singh et al., 1991, 1992) and modelling studies (Lal, 1994). 

11.1 Introduction

Economic analysis is the most important parameter for determining the optimum size of farm pond. It is, no doubt that a big size farm pond can meet the irrigation demand of the crops grown in the command areas in addition to meeting the other demand in the command areas. But a big size farm pond is an oversize structure which necessitates large investment to be incurred which may not be economically viable. On the other hand, a small size structure may not be able to meet the crop water demand and also other demands in the command areas and so is called as under-designed structure. It has been observed that as the size of the farm pond gradually increases from a certain minimum size, the total investment cost increases. At the same time, the benefits from the increasing storage capacity of the farm pond also get increased. In such cases, from a purely business point of view, the most economical capacity is that which provides the highest rate of return on investment. As the size of the farm pond increases, the proportion of the benefit/profit to the cost also increases from certain minimum size, attains maximum value at a particular size and then declines as the size further increases. This particular size of the farm pond at which the net profit is maximum, is called as the optimum size. It is to be noted that at the optimum size, the other economic indicators like the benefit-cost ratio and internal rate of return are also high. The variation of net profit with size of the farm pond is a concave curve. The size of the farm pond corresponding to the peak of the curve which represents the highest net profit is the optimum size of the pond.

The principle of obtaining the optimum size of farm pond is to first assume a certain minimum size say five percent of the farm area and conduct the economic analysis by studying the costs and net profits of the assumed size. Then the size is gradually increased and the economic analysis is conducted for each increased size. Then a curve relating the size of the farm pond and net profit is drawn. Such a curve is generally concave shaped. The size of the structure corresponding to the maximum net profit gives the optimum size. It is to be noted that any size chosen more or less than the optimum size would give less net profit and benefit-cost ratio than that of the optimum size.

India is a natural reservoir of the several fruit species. The several less known fruit species, which have the potential for commercial exploitation, are yet to be utilized to their potential. An attention to the less known fruit would play a significant role in increasing the income, providing employment opportunities, uplifting of the poor, small and marginal farmers and the development of value added products. These fruits are well known for their medicinal and nutritive value. There is a great need to develop and popularize not only for their domestic market but also for their export. Some of the less known fruits are described here with respect to their cultivation technology.

Introduction

Precision agriculture, also known as precision farming or smart farming, represents a ground breaking approach to agricultural management that integrates cutting-edge technologies and data-driven techniques to optimize crop production. This introduction sets the stage for exploring the transformative potential of precision agriculture in revolutionizing traditional farming practices. By harnessing advancements in sensors, drones, artificial intelligence, and global positioning systems (GPS), precision agriculture empowers farmers to make informed decisions based on real-time data and spatial variability within fields. The overarching goal of precision agriculture is to maximize yields, minimize input costs, and reduce environmental impacts by precisely tailoring farming practices to the specific needs of crops and soil conditions. As global population growth and climate change exert increasing pressure on agricultural systems, the adoption of precision agriculture emerges as a crucial strategy for enhancing food security, promoting sustainability, and ensuring the long-term viability of farming operations. Through this introduction, we embark on a journey to explore the multifaceted dimensions of precision agriculture and its profound implications for the future of agriculture.

Introduction

The biology is the study of life forms, subdivided into a variety of specialist categories that include their morphology, physiology, anatomy, behavior, origin, and distribution.The conservation of endangered species is often equated with the preservation of biodiversity by people all over the world. Although endangered species are among the most obvious and understandable markers of the continual loss of biodiversity, ecologists are aware that biodiversity involves much more than just endangered species. An increasingly popular and crucial component of initiatives to preserve the ecological diversity of the planet is the protection of such species.

Endangered species

Endangered (EN): A taxon that is not critically endangered but facing a very high risk of extinction in the natural environment in the near future, it is considered to be endangered.

The important criteria are

1. A decline of at least 50% over at least 10 years or three generations that has been observed, estimated, inferred, or suspected. 2. Population thought to consist of no more than 2500 mature individuals.

Introduction
Molecular markers have revolutionized various fields of biological research by providing precise tools to elucidate genetic diversity, map genes, and facilitate marker-assisted selection (MAS) in breeding programs. These markers, ranging from simple sequence repeats (SSRs) to single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), offer invaluable insights into the genetic architecture of organisms, enabling researchers to link specific DNA sequences to desired traits. By harnessing the power of molecular markers, scientists can expedite the development of stress-tolerant crops, enhance agricultural productivity, and address global challenges such as food security and climate change.
A. Definition of molecular markers: Molecular markers play a crucial role in identifying genetic variations or disparities among individuals, populations, or species. These markers are specific sequences of DNA (or RNA) that can be found in blood, other body fluids, or tissues, serving as indicators of normal or abnormal processes, conditions, or diseases. Additionally, they can be fragments of DNA associated with a genome, aiding in the identification of specific DNA sequences. Molecular markers are indispensable tools in the fields of genetics, molecular biology, and biotechnology, enabling the identification of specific DNA sequences and genetic variations within populations.

Gerbera ranks among the leading cut flowers globally and is especially important under protected cultivation in India. This chapter covers its origin, distribution, genetics, botanical characteristics and commercially important varieties. It explains greenhouse requirements, climate, light, soil, growing media, propagation, planting density, irrigation, fertigation and crop management. Important pests and diseases, physiological problems, harvesting, grading, postharvest treatment and yield are discussed in relation to commercial quality. The chapter highlights Gerbera's suitability for progressive farmers and its production in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and other Indian regions.

“The way to health is the way to have an aromatic bath and a scented massage everyday”                        Hippocrates

Aromatherapy is the art and science of using fragrant volatile plant oils and herbs including essential oils, for psychological and physical well-being of man by promoting natural healing and health. It is an emerging art of healing through essential oil, which has got therapeutic effect on body, mind and soul.  Essential oils give calmness, emotional and hormonal balance, stress relief and rejuvenation. Medicinal and spiritual properties of scented herbs were noted by ancient Egyptians and Babylonians. Embalming of body of Egyptian Pharaohs was a practice to purify body for afterlife, whereas Egyptian priests used oils and incense as healers. Books were written in ancient Arabia indicating uses and benefits of certain aromas. Perfumed mortar was used by Babylonians to build temples and mosques, for premises cleaning and cleansing aromas. Ancient Greek believed sweet smells were of divine origin and they used to take aromatic bath to drench them in purity. Aromatic bath and scented massage were ways to health for Romans.

Collection of faecal samples: To diagnose gastro-intestinal parasites of ruminants or other animals, the parasites or their eggs/larvae must be recovered from the digestive tract of animal or human or from the faecal/stool material.
 
The faecal samples for parasitological examination should be collected from the rectum of animals. If rectum samples cannot be obtained, fresh faecal samples may be collected from the pastures. Several samples should be collected and immediately dispatched to the diagnostic laboratory in suitable containers such as:

Historical Aspect
    Curare was the first known muscle relaxant which was used by South American Indians to immobilize wild animals. Hence the term curariform has been applied to the action of this group of drugs. 
    In year 1958, a plant alkaloid alcuronium was introduced but there were difficulties in reversing the action of this drug.
    Succinylcholine was first used in 1906. However, its paralyzing property was discovered in year 1949.
    Pancuronium was introduced in 1964.
 

Physical Chemistry of Foods

    1.    Thermodynamics is primarily concerned with energy and entropy. Energy, also called internal energy (U), comprises heat and work; it is measured in joules (J).

    2.    Energy may be recalled that work generally equals force times distance (in N_·m = J) and that force equals mass times acceleration (in kg ·m· s^-2 = N).

    3.    According to the first law of thermodynamics, the quantity of energy, i.e., heat (q) work (p) potential energy, is always preserved.

    4.    Entropy (S)  is a measure of disorder; it is given by   
        S = K_B ln Ω
        Where K_B is the Boltzmann constant (1.38 ×10^-23 J × K^-1) and W is the number of  ways in which the system can be arranged, also called the number of degrees of freedom.

    5.    Colligative solution properties : The lowering of the chemical potential of a solvent by the presence of a solute causes changes in a number of physical properties: vapor pressure, boiling point, freezing point, osmotic pressure, etc. (the magnitudes of these changes all are proportional to the mole fraction of solute).

In most of the underdeveloped and developing countries, regional diets are monotonous, unbalanced and poor in quality having a high percentage of starchy components and inadequate proportion of protein. The long-term solution to the problem of protein malnutrition lies in the greater production and better distribution of a protein-rich diet. Fish offers protein in a cheap and alternative form. Probably due to this, man has exploited the hydrosphere for food and consequently the history of the development of pisciculture. As the fish perishes rapidly, methods have been devised to keep the fish fresh between the catch and consumption.

The development of fisheries in India has attained considerable progress in increasing the per hectare yield of carps by controlled breeding and rearing of the young ones. Keeping the pace of development, the culture of air-breathing fishes has attracted the attention of aqua-culturists. Many varieties of these fishes have been successfully bred using pituitary extract (Ramaswami and Sundararaj, 1957; Moitra et al, 1979; Thakur, 1976). The traditional methods of transport of spawn, fry, fingerlings and even brooders in various open and closed systems pose major problems due to their heavy mortality. The mortality of live fishes is high mostly due to stress during transportation. For a long, studies on different aspects of transportation of carps and their allies have been carried out by fishery scientists. Some of the works which need special mention are that of Khan (1939, 1946), Ganapati and Chako (1951), Ranade and Kewalramani (1956), Saha and Chowdhury (1956), Saha et al, (1956a and b), Ramchandran (1969), Singh (1977), Selvaraj et al, (1981) and Jha (1995) etc. In comparison to Indian major carps, consumption of air-breathing fish is not so popular although they are a rich source of protein. However, their demand is gradually increasing. Much has to be done to meet the increasing demand of air-breathing fishes to exploit the maximum available derelict water.

The two commercially important Indian air-breathing fishes, Anabas testudineus (Bloch) and Channa punctatus (Bloch) commonly known as climbing perch and snake-headed murrel belong to the order Perciformes and Channiformes respectively. They live in different trophic zones of swamps and derelict ponds and are highly predatory habits. In the present work, oxygen uptake has been observed in Anabas testudineus and Channa punctatus concerning their body weight and group size. The effect of anaesthetic on the oxygen uptake and the effect of ammonia on the structure and function of the gills in Channa punctatus have also been studied. The findings have been used to evaluate suitable methods for long-distance transportation of these fishes. As we surviving in the COVID-19 pandemic, proper sanitization of all the equipment and accessories is one of the essential steps for fish transportation.

Introduction

Soil management refers to a set of practices and strategies employed by farmers and land managers to maintain, improve, and sustain the health, fertility, and productivity of soil in agricultural systems. It encompasses a range of activities aimed at optimizing soil conditions for crop growth while minimizing environmental degradation. Soil management practices include soil testing to assess nutrient levels and pH, the application of fertilizers and soil amendments to correct deficiencies, erosion control measures to prevent soil loss, and conservation practices to enhance soil structure and health. Additionally, soil management involves the integration of organic matter, such as compost and crop residues, to enhance soil fertility and microbial activity. The overarching goal of soil management is to ensure the long-term sustainability of agricultural systems by preserving soil health, supporting crop productivity, and minimizing environmental impacts.

Method of Soil Management 1

. Soil Testing and Analysis: Soil testing and analysis play a pivotal role in soil management for agricultural crops, providing farmers with critical information about soil health, fertility, and nutrient status. By understanding the composition of their soil, farmers can make informed decisions about fertilization, soil amendments, and crop selection to optimize yields and minimize environmental impacts. For example, soil testing can reveal deficiencies or excesses of essential nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, enabling farmers to tailor their fertilizer applications accordingly. If a soil test indicates low levels of phosphorus, for instance, farmers can apply phosphorus-rich fertilizers to replenish the nutrient and support healthy crop growth. Conversely, if soil pH is too high or too low, amendments such as lime or sulphur can be applied to adjust pH levels and create optimal growing conditions for crops.

9.1 Plastering Storage area with Lime and Sand: The storage areas, known as Hagevu, are plastered with a mixture of lime and sand. These areas can store 20-30 bags of grain (Heggere and Chitradurga, Karnataka). Nagarathna (2000).

9.2 Indoor Bamboo or Reed Structure for Grain Storage: Indoor storage structures are typically made of bamboo. In regions where bamboo is scarce, farmers use locally available reeds. These structures are cost-effective since they utilize local materials and knowledge, but they do not protect grains from rodents and insects, have a short lifespan, are susceptible to fire, and require frequent maintenance (Andhra Pradesh and Orissa). Navanitha Raju (1999).

9.3 Storage of Onion Bulbs on Bamboo Platform: Onion bulbs can be stored for up to a year on a platform made of loosely woven bamboo strips, raised 2-3 feet above the ground to allow air circulation. The bulbs are piled 2-3 feet high and protected from sun and rain with a cover (Junagadh, Gujarat). Babulbhai (1993).

9.4 Method of Storage of Food Grains in Khanti: A 'Khanti' is constructed in areas with low underground water levels, where a 15-foot deep Khanti can be made. It has a sloping shape with a base 10-15 meters wide and a top one foot wide. A one-foot thick layer of husk mixed with neem is spread at the bottom and sides for pest protection. Different grains can be stored by separating them with layers of husk and large leaves. A Khanti can store 10-15 tonnes of grains from May to November (Maharashtra). Singh (1999).

9.5 Storage of Potato Tubers: Farmers in Hoskote village, Karnataka, store potato tubers in the field on an elevated, hardened soil area of 25 × 4 square feet, supported by 12 stone pillars. A thatched roof provides shade, and a bed of local grass and sugarcane leaves is spread on the floor. Harvested tubers are layered on this bed, with additional layers of leaves on top. The storage is checked for pests every 2-3 weeks. Calotropis gigantea leaves and branches are used around the heap to prevent rodent attacks. This method keeps potatoes cool even in hot conditions (Bangalore, Karnataka). Hannganahalli (1999).