eChapters

Introduction

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) play a vital role in the rapidly developing field of nanoscience and nanotechnology. CNTs, discovered by Ijima in 1991, are another allotrope form of carbon with a cylindrical graphite structure (Iijima, 1991). They exhibit excellent mechanical, electronic, thermal, optical and chemical properties, which have revolutionised the state of the art in nanotechnology (Arora and Sharma, 2014). CNTs have been categorised into single walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs), double walled carbon nanotubes (DWCNTs) and multi walled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs).

4.1 Indian Rural Women Embracing the Changes

Rural areas are chiefly characterized by a strong reliance on primary industries such as agriculture, forestry, fishing, and mining (MacTavish, 2020). When examined by occupation, the agricultural sector frequently acts as the foundation of rural economies, employing a sizable percentage of workers in farming, livestock raising, and crop production (Cagliarini & Rush, 2011). Unlike urban areas, rural regions offer fewer non-agricultural employment opportunities, leading to a greater emphasis on self-employment, small-scale enterprises, and seasonal work patterns. Limited access to formal employment prompts reliance on informal sectors such as casual labour and subsistence farming.

Introduction

In the field of agriculture, integrated disease management (IDM) refers to a technique that is both comprehensive and sustainable. Its purpose is to successfully control plant diseases while simultaneously reducing negative consequences on the environment and assuring long-term output. This is a plan that is based on scientific research and incorporates a variety of illness management strategies in order to reach the best potential result. IDM seeks to achieve a balance between the economic viability of the project, the preservation of the environment, and the well-being of the community.

In order to keep plant populations healthy and produce maximum yields, integrated disease management (IDM) places an emphasis on prevention, early diagnosis, and the use of a number of methods. This strategy is especially important in contemporary agriculture, where reducing the quantity of chemical inputs and fostering techniques that are environmentally friendly are of the utmost importance.

Introduction
Genetic engineering is the process of modifying an organism’s genome, frequently to add or eliminate desired features. This field is developing quickly and has many uses in biological sciences, the agricultural sector and medicine. Gene therapy is a medical application of genetic engineering that corrects or replaces malfunctioning genes using beneficial ones to alleviate genetic illnesses. It is used in gene therapy and medicine to treat hereditary illnesses by introducing therapeutic genes into the body or fixing defective genes. Generating genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in agriculture as crops enhanced to withstand pests or environmental conditions also depends significantly on it. Over the last 10 to 20 years, genetically modified organisms (GMOs) have been incorporated into the system of agriculture and products for the consumer sector. This developed in the USA but has since spread to poorer nations. Since genetic engineering was discovered, its ability to alter the genetic material of living things’ DNA has been identified. The debates have taken place worldwide but have gained the most traction in the European Union due to mistrust in scientists, regulatory bodies and technology decisions. The genetic hinders can potentially enter a new cell through bacteria or viruses. Transgenic plants are those created using transformation techniques (such as Agrobacterium-mediated transformation or direct gene transfer) that insert specific foreign nucleotide or gene sequence regions into their genome (Grifths et al. 2005).
Agrobacterium rhizogenes and A. tumefaciens are common vectors used in plant-to-plant gene transfer. The desired gene inserted into the bacteria’s DNA will be transferred to the plants by the bacteria when they infect them with an individual plasmid in the soil. Vector transmission of genes is a natural environmental alteration, the favored modification technique. A curious field at the intersection of biotechnology and genomics is the field of genetic engineering. To put it bluntly, it’s the process of modifying an organism’s DNA to introduce new or altered features. Altering the DNA is a technique that allows for inserting, deleting or modifying particular genes to modify property or add new functions. Genetic engineering has many valuable and significant applications. It is used in agriculture to produce crops with better nutrient content and increased resilience to pests, diseases and environmental stress. According to studies, tissue-specific, promoters-especially stress-inducible promoters, which limit transgene expression to the stress period-improve the phenotypes of transgenic plants when compared to constitutive promoters (Shavrukov et al., 2016). Biotechnology also involves genetic engineering in producing illicit substances, enzymatic agents and bioenergy.

Thus the average value of progeny genotypes in response to selection of parental phenotypes depends largely on Cov (G, g), the genetic covariance of parent and offspring which is half the additive genetic variance of the parents.
We know that on an average, half of genes of a parent are passed to the offspring and with them a random half of his additive merit. One-fourth of his additive x additive gene combinations are also transmitted and lesser fractions of higher additive combinations. No dominance combinations are transmitted, since only one member of each allelic gene pair reaches the offspring. Similarly all epistatic gene combinations involving allelic gene pairs are broken up at gamete formation. If dominance and epistatic gene combinations involving allelic gene pairs are important in determining genetic superiority for the trait, then direct selection of superior parents will not produce genetically superior offspring. Some form of mating system which will recreate these combinations in the offspring, together with the formation of lines or groups within the population is needed in these circumstances.
Thus, the aim of selection is to identify and select as parents individuals with high additive genetic merit. By selecting the parent on additive merit, we also ensure that a fraction of any parallel merit for additive type epistasis is also passed on. In considering response to selection, little is lost by treating the response as if it were wholly determined by the additive effects of genes

Introduction 
Sustainability refers to the ability to maintain a balanced and healthy equilibrium by addressing economic, social, and environmental demands over time. Sustainable development is a broad and evolving concept that aims to meet present needs without jeopardizing the ability of future generations to meet theirs. It seeks to balance short-term progress with long-term viability. The United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), also known as the Global Goals, are a set of 17 goals and 169 targets that all UN Member States aim to achieve by 2030. SDG 3, which emphasizes ensuring healthy lives and promoting well-being for all at all ages, places a strong focus on health. Within SDG 3, reducing maternal mortality and decreasing neonatal and child mortality are key priorities, represented by Targets 3.1 and 3.2, respectively. The global goal for SDG 3.1 is to lower the maternal mortality ratio (MMR) to fewer than 70 per 100,000 live births by 2030. For individual countries, a supplementary target is set to reduce their national MMR to below 140 per 100,000 live births. A nation’s progress is fundamentally tied to the health and well-being of its mothers, which is a crucial factor in achieving equitable resource distribution, reducing poverty, and promoting sustainable development. Tragically, approximately 536,000 women die each year from maternal health complications, with 99% of these deaths occurring in developing nations. India, contributing about 25% of global maternal deaths, faces a critical challenge, with around 136,000 maternal deaths occurring annually. The country has set an ambitious goal to reduce its MMR to below 100 deaths per 100,000 live births. To address these issues and support sustainability, Reproductive and Child Health (RCH) indicators play an essential role in monitoring maternal and child health (MCH) outcomes. These indicators include measures such as immunization coverage, institutional delivery rates, home delivery rates, and antenatal care coverage. By tracking these metrics policymakers can assess the effectiveness of maternal health services and identify areas that require improvement. Utilizing RCH indicators to inform policies and programs contributes to better health outcomes for mothers and children and helps reduce mortality rates, which aligns with the objectives of SDG 3. Certain regions of India have made notable strides in improving MCH. For example, the northeastern state of Assam saw significant improvements in RCH indicators between 2010 and 2015. During this time, the rate of institutional deliveries increased substantially ensuring more women had access to safe childbirth services. The government has also strengthened maternal health care by implementing various MCH programs, including the RCH initiatives and other flagship schemes.

Selection is an important activity in all the breeding programmes. Different types of selections i.e. mass selection, progeny selection and cyclic selection etc. are used depending on the mode of pollination of the crop species, the predominant gene action and the breeding objectives. The efficiency of selection largely depends on the extent of genetic variability present in the population and the heritability of the character. Selection is more effective for character with high heritability than those having low heritability. Breeding for higher or better yield is the breeding objective for most of the breeding programmes, but it has low heritability. Yield is considered to be complex or super character which is influenced by many components or contributing traits both in positive and in negative directions. Due to the fact that it has low heritability, selection is done for the yield contributing traits so that yield may be increased through selection. Prior to selection for yield contributing traits, it is always beneficial to study the extent and type of relationship between the character and yield. There are different procedures which aid in the isolation of superior yielding genotypes from genetically variable populations by providing information on indirect selection for yield. These methods are discussed in the following content.

Livestock is an important source of income for the rural poor and marginal farmers which enables earn income and food security using common resources.It is a best option to utilize such waste resources in proper way to earn income. About 65-69% of Indian population consisting of small and marginal farmers and land less laborers reared animal as supplementary occupation by feeding their animals agriculture by products. Indian agriculture is very difficult to sustain without dairy animals. Per capita availability of milk comes out to 281gm per day, which is below than the average of 300gm recommended by Nutrition Council of ICMR. Thus, there is a further need to increase the milk production of the country in view of minimizing difference between per capita availability and requirement. Milk production in India has increased from a modest 22 million tons during 1970-1971 to about 122 million tons in 2011—2012 (Deptt. of Animal Husbandry and Dairying).

China aster (Callistephus chinensis L. Nees) belongs to family Asteraceae. It is a half hardy and branching annual. Its generic name Callistephus is derived from two Greek words “kalistos” meaning beautiful and “stephos” meaning a crown alluding the large colourful flower heads. Plant is erect having hispid-hairy branches (Bailey, 1963). It is propagated through seed. It is cultivated as cut flower both in the field and under protected condition in temperate countries (Post, 1956 and Warren Auman, 1980). Whereas, in India it is widely grown in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Maharastra for cut as well as loose flower production (Janakiram et al., 2001).

Introduction

Chemical warfare involves using the toxic properties of chemical substances to kill, injure or incapacitate an enemy.

Chemical warfare is different from the use of conventional weapons or nuclear weapons because the destructive effects of chemical weapons are not primarily due to any explosive force. The offensive use of living organisms (such as anthrax) is considered to be biological warfare rather than chemical warfare; the use of nonliving toxic products produced by living organisms (e.g., toxins such as botulinum toxin, ricin, or saxitoxin) is considered chemical warfare under the provisions of the Chemical Weapons Convention. Under this Convention, any toxic chemical, regardless of its origin, is considered as a chemical weapon unless it is used for purposes that are not prohibited (an important legal definition, known as the General Purpose Criterion)

Mature seed samples of Vigna dalzelliana (O.Kuntze) Verdc. were analysed for proximate composition, total (true) seed protein fractions, amino acid composition, fatty acids profiles, mineral and antinutritional factors. The investigated seed samples contained higher amount of crude protein, crude fat, ash and nitrogen free extractives and constitute 27.33,7.48,6.71 and 50.12g/100g. seed powder respectively. The calorific value of seed material was 377.12  K.cal / 100 g Dm. The essential amino acids, isoleucine, tyrosine and phenylalanine, were present in relatively large quantities. The fatty acid profiles revealed that the seed lipids contained higher concentrations of palmitic and linoleic acids. The seeds are rich in sodium, phosphorous, calcium, zinc, manganese and iron. Anti-nutritional factors, such as total free phenols (8.26%), tannins (6.1875 %), L-DOPA (0.96%), hydrogen cyanide (1.94 %) and phytic acid (7.32%) are present in variable quantities. This paper presents the analytical data on the chemical composition and nutritional potential of Vigna dalzelliana seeds with regard to its suitability as a regular component in human diet.

The State of Andhra Pradesh in the present form came into being on June 2, 2014 as a result of the Andhra Pradesh Reorganization Act. The state has 13 districts out of which nine are along the coast of Bay of Bengal and four are land locked in the southern part. A part of Khammam district, which is now in the Telangana state, was also added to the East and West Godavari districts of the State of Andhra Pradesh. The existing data for these two districts do not include this part and this fact is to be borne in mind. The state has a geographical area of 1.602 lakh km2 with a population of 49.83 million. The state in the current form is more agrarian compared to the undivided state as about 62 per cent of population depends on agriculture as a source of livelihood. Yet, the contribution of agriculture to the state’s gross domestic product is only 17 per cent. Though the state is known as ‘rice bowl of India’, not all is well with agriculture in the state. Some parts, especially the coastal districts, are prone to incidence of cyclones and floods while some other districts, Rayalaseema districts, are chronically drought-prone. 

Introduction

Horticulture is the science and art of propagation, production, utilization, improvement, harvesting and marketing of crops such as fruits, vegetables, ornamental plants, spices & condiments, medicinal & aromatic plants, plantation crops, postharvest technology etc. The term is derived from the Latin word hortus mean garden and cultura means to cultivate. These crops are diverse which includes annuals to perennials, edible to ornamentals, temperate to tropical, humid to desert, etc. Horticultural plants help to sustain and enrich people by providing nutritious food, medicines, enhances the beauty of surroundings, besides reducing carbon footprint. They also serves as raw material for various industries, such as processing, pharmaceutical, perfumery and cosmetics, chemical, confectionery, oils and paints, etc.

Importance of Horticultural Crops

The horticulture crops are a source of variability in farm produce as well as human diets. The comparative production per unit area of horticultural crops is much higher than field crops. They are not only a source of nutrients, vitamins, minerals, flavour, aroma and dietary fibres, but also contains health benefiting compounds and medicines. Ornamental horticulture have aesthetic value and protects the environment. These crops are also useful for cultivation in wasteland, poor quality soil, slopy, uneven or undulating lands. Mango and cashew nut are cultivated on a large scale in hilly and hill back areas. Such crops are of high value, labour intensive and generate employment throughout the year. Further they have national and international demand and are a good source of foreign exchange.

Introduction

Agriculture is that the back-bone of the economics of eveloping country likes India. It’s additionally the most “culture” for rural families even nowadays agriculture and allied activities build the one largest contribution to gross domestic product. Female are mother of the race and liaison between generations. Female’s role in agriculture and agricultural heritage described and recognized by the United Nations Organization (UNO) that has sustained the expansion of society wrought the long run of states. Within the rising advanced social state of affairs female have a role to play. Rural females are the foremost vital productive hands within the economy of majority of the developing nations together with India. Female are concerned all told the aspects of agriculture. India incorporates a preponderantly rural economy. Seventieth of her population is rural; of these households, have interaction in agriculture as their main supply of financial gain. It’s forever been India’s most vital economic sector. Female plays a significant role during this vital agricultural sector, as a result of it’s for the most part a ménage enterprise. Female in India are major producers of food in terms important, volume and variety of hours worked. Nearly 63% of all economically active men are engaged in agriculture as compared to seventy eight per cent of female. Nearly 50% of rural female employees are classified as agricultural labourers and thirty seventh as cultivators. Concerning 70% of farm work was performed by women. In several countries, women play a major and crucial role in agricultural development and agricultural allied fields together with, main crop production, live-stock production, gardening, post-harvesting operations, agro/social biology, fishing etc. as it is evident; it’s a reality long taken without any consideration however unheeded since ages. Hence, here a try has been created (i) to review the role of female in agriculture and changes in their position at small level, that’s village level (ii) to review the gender discrimination in land, labour and wage market.

Plant Propagation is a technique through which multiplication or production of new individuals take place from selected propagules. The methods of propagation are broadly divided in two categories:

1. Sexual method
2. Asexual method

1. Sexual method of Propagation

In this method, plants are produced from seeds and such plants are called seedlings. Seed is considered as a dormant plant which develops into a complete plant if subjected to congenial environment.

Advantages

1. This is very simple, cheap and easy method of propagation.
2. Some species of fruits, ornamental annuals and vegetables which cannot be propagated by asexual means should be propagated by this method. e.g. papaya, marigold, tomato etc.
3. Hybrid seeds can be developed by this method.

6.1. Calculation of Energy Requirements for Field Operations
The energy needs for a certain field activity can be determined by adding the amounts of human, bullock, mechanical, and/or electric energy consumed.

Operational Costs for Various Power Sources
Manual power

In the case of human labour, the wages of unskilled employment are charged on an hourly or daily basis (as determined by the location).In the case of research farms, the costs for operating a pair of bullocks are determined on the basis of the cost of a pair of bullocks, the salary of an operator, the cost of bullock feed, and any other expenditures (as imposed in a given location). For the farmer’s fields, however, the real hiring expenses are used as the foundation.

Introduction

Seaweeds, also known as marine macroalgae, grow in intertidal zones to deep sea environments. Based on their pigmentation, seaweeds are classified into three groups. They are red (Rhodophyta), green (Chlorophyta), and brown (Phaeophyta). Seaweeds are the primary producers in marine ecosystems; they also contribute to carbon fixation, nutrient cycling, reducing wave energy, preventing coastal erosion, and oxygen production. The complex, three dimensional growing nature of seaweeds helps habitat marine flora and fauna. Seaweeds are consumed as food in many countries, particularly in Asia due to their high nutritional content. Along with their nutritional value, they contain bioactive compounds with potential pharmaceutical and cosmetic applications. Agar and alginate from seaweeds are used in the food and pharmaceutical industries.

Seaweeds are integral part of marine ecosystems. Chemical pollutants including pesticides can disrupt these ecosystems by harming their populations, which directly or indirectly affect the marine environment. seaweeds are not only essential components of marine ecosystems. They are also consumed directly or indirectly in various food products (e.g., sushi, soups, and salads). The pesticides in the marine environment absorbed by seaweeds and bioaccumulate in the food chain. Seaweed cultivation is an emerging sector worldwide. The applications of seaweeds are food, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and biofuels production. Seaweeds contaminate with pesticides leads to economic loss and reducing market demand. Manu of the seaweed consuming countries have safety limit for pesticide residues in food products, including seaweeds. The presence of pesticides in seaweeds also helps the development of risk assessment and management strategies including source identification, exposure pathways, and mitigating measures. The monitoring of pesticides in seaweeds provides the contamination levels over time, which helps to identifying the emerging issues, assess the effectiveness of regulatory measures, and guide adaptive management strategies.

Introduction
Storage of fresh meat without microbiological degeneration at temperature more than freezing point of meat is known as ‘conditioning’ or ‘ageing’ and it is said to enhance tenderness and flavor of the meat Conditioning is also known as ageing or proteolysis of meat
• In the initial 24–36 h after the slaughter, glycolysis is the prevailing reaction going on during post-mortem
• The organization of the contractile proteins can only be conserved by the constant supply of ATP (energy source)
• But ATP supply becomes scarce with the passage of time after death and denaturation of the proteins starts
• Denaturation is a physical or intramolecular reorganization without involving hydrolysis of the bonds occurring between the various amino acids of the polypeptide proteins chains
• Denaturation is characterized by heightened reactivity of different chemical groups, a modification in molecules shape or size, reduced solubility and lost biological reactivity in cases of enzymes or hormones
• In the course of post-mortem conditioning, proteins are prone for denaturation due to lower pH than in-vivo, temperatures more than 25 °C or less than 0 °C, dehydration and higher non- hysiological salt levels
• Connective tissue proteins such as collagen and elastin do not undergo denaturation during conditioning

1. Introduction
Early childhood (0-6 years) is the most important period in a child’s life; it is during this period that the foundations for the child’s cognitive, social, emotional, physical and mental development are laid. As a result, the Ministry of Women and Child Development implemented several programs aimed at the welfare, development and protection of children and pregnant women. One such program is The Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) program, which began on October 2, 1975. In India, ICDS is the most important government intervention for reducing maternal and child malnutrition and it has grown to become the world’s largest program of its kind. The ICDS aims to provide an integrated package of early childhood services in order to lay a solid foundation for the development of the nation’s human resources. The ICDS scheme is intended to be both preventive and developmental in nature. ICDS gives hope to millions of vulnerable women and children by assisting and supporting them during times of food insecurity and rapid growth. Because of its nationwide coverage, this program has all of the necessary structures in place and provides nutritional safety for the most vulnerable and poorest of the poor. This is a one-of-a-kind program with no counterpart anywhere in the world, in terms of scope and coverage.
Objectives of the ICDS Program
The following are the objectives of the ICDS scheme:
1. To improve the nutritional and health status of children in the age group of 0-6 years
2. To lay the foundations for the proper psychological physical and social development of the child
3. To reduce mortality morbidity, malnutrition and school dropout
4. To achieve an effective coordination of policy and implementation among the various departments working for the promotion of child development
5. To enhance the capability of the mother and the nutritional needs of the child through proper nutrition and health education.

Solidago, commonly known as goldenrod, is an attractive filler-type cut flower valued for its bright yellow inflorescences and commercial potential. This chapter discusses its origin, taxonomy, botanical characteristics, genetics, varieties and environmental requirements. It explains seed propagation for breeding and vegetative propagation through rhizome suckers for commercial multiplication. Climate, soil, planting, nutrition, irrigation and cultural management are described, followed by pest and disease control. Harvesting, postharvest handling, grading, vase life and yield are also addressed. The chapter highlights commercially important cultivars and the crop's suitability for professional cut flower production and export markets.