eChapters

12.1. Introduction

Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) are computational models inspired by the way biological neural networks in the human brain process information. They consist of interconnected nodes or “neurons” arranged in layers: an input layer, one or more hidden layers, and an output layer. Each neuron in the network processes data and passes the results to the next layer. ANNs are designed to recognize patterns, learn from data, and make predictions or classifications based on that learning.

In an ANN, the connections between neurons are weighted, meaning each connection has a strength or value that determines the influence of one neuron on another. Through a process called training, the network adjusts these weights to minimize errors in its predictions. This is typically done using techniques like backpropagation, where the error is propagated backward through the network to update the weights (Abiodunet al., 2018).

ANNs are highly versatile and have been applied across various domains, including image and speech recognition, natural language processing, and decision-making systems. Their ability to model complex relationships in large datasets makes them a crucial component in the field of machine learning and artificial intelligence (Ahmed et al., 2023).

Minor millets, that belong to members of the cereal grass family, are advantageous in areas where large crops like Bread wheat, Rice paddy, and maize are relatively ineffective because they have a wide range of genetic diversity and thrive in marginal environments. The varied soil types, temperatures, heat and light cycles, and rainfall patterns across India all support the cultivation of minor millets. Finger millet, barnyard millet, foxtail millet, proso millet, and many more types of minor millet are used in agriculture. The majority of those who depend on these millets for sustenance and income are small-scale indigenous farmers and dwellers of rainfed areas, mainly among impoverished tribal populations numbering in the millions. Coarse cereals,now a days known as Nutri cereals or nutraceutical flora and are no longer known as coarse cereals as a potential global answer to malnutrition and unrecognized hunger. Minor millets have long been an essential component of Indian tribal societies’ agricultural systems and practices. They have used little millets for both famine prevention and ethnomedicine since the beginning of time. This chapter focuses on how little millet could help people have access to food and nutrition security while reducing hunger and malnutrition.

Listeria

Murray et al. (1926) first described about Listeria which was followed by Pirie et al. (1927). In India Listeriosis was first reported by Mahajan (1936) in sheep from Andhrapradesh. He recognized it as ‘circling disease’. Latter a number of reports are available from various parts of India.

ABSTRACT

Hyperspectral data are generally noisier compared to broadband multispectral data. Therefore, it is desirable to smoothen the reflectance spectra. Smoothing needs to preserve an absorption feature while simultaneously removing noise. It is very essential to optimize the smoothing filter to minimize disturbances to the statistical properties of the original data. This study was carried out to see the effect of Fast-Fourier Transform (FFT) based smoothing technique on the statistical properties of vegetation spectral response and to see the effect of the filter size. The data used for the present study is the reflectance spectra data obtained from space borne EO-1 onboard Hyperion sensor. Filter sizes were varied between 3 and 15 with the increment of 2, i.e. 3, 5, 7..........15. Paired t-test was carried out between the original and the smoothed data (for the selective bands) for all the filter sizes in order to see the extent of distortion with changing filter sizes. Our study revealed that the distortion in the spectra increases with the increase in the filter size. Beyond filter size 11, the number of locations within the spectra where the smooth spectra were statistically different from its original counterpart increased to 14 and reaches 21 at the filter size 15.

Bone is the only tissue in the body able to heal without microscopical scarring. On the other hand fracture healing is a slow process causing long immobilization periods with consequently high costs for fracture healing giving rise to delayed healing, fibrous healing or non-healing with subsequent problems for both, the patient and the orthopedic surgeon. Fracture healing is complex phenomenon which involves numerous cells, regulators of cell function and biochemical interactions in the repair process. The healing potential of bone, in a fracture model is influenced by a variety of biochemical, biomechanical, cellular, hormonal and pathological mechanisms. A continuous occurring state of bone deposition, resorption and remodeling facilitates the healing process.

Biodegradable and bioinert ceramic materials such as hydroxyapatite (HA), tri­calcium phosphate (TCP), aluminum-calcium-phosphate (ALCAP) ceramics provides scaffold to support the attachment and migration of newly formed bone cells into the osseous defect and also help in formation of a vascular network through the newly formed bone. Bioceramic also act as a carrier to deliver stem cells for osteogenesis.

Specific bone-inductive proteins/growth factors can induce bone formation and healing in vivo. These morphogens are therefore, to be an ideal alternative to autogenous bone grafts. These findings initiating intensive research into bone regeneration orchestrated by putative soluble signals and lead to the discovery and identification of an entirely novel family of protein initiators collectively called the bone morphogenic protein (BMPs), which belong to transforming growth factors-ß (TGF- ß) super family. These growth factors might possess a biological activity that is site and tissue specific in the induction of bone formation. Different growth factors have been demonstrated to possess osteoinductive and fracture healing properties.

Chocolate is a product that requires complex procedures to produce. The process involves harvesting coca, refining coca to cocoa beans, and shipping the cocoa beans to the manufacturing factory for cleaning, roasting, grinding , ref ining , conching , moulding and enrobing operations which are accomplished using wide range of machinery. A few have been discussed in this chapter.

1. Bean Roasters

When cocoa beans were first brought to Europe, the method of roasting was quite simple, often consisting of no more than metal trays suspended by chains over a fire, an ancient Middle Eastern technique for roasting coffee. The beans would be stirred by hand with a long stick or paddle until the roast was complete. Needless to day, this was very labor intensive and inefficient. Clearly, something more efficient was needed. The next development in roasting technology was not that far distant from roasters in use today. Metal cylinders or balls that could hold up to several pounds of cocoa beans would be suspended over the embers of a fire. A rod would run through the center and act as an axis upon which the roaster would turn. A hand crank on one end would allow the cylinder or ball to be turned while the beans were roasting. The result was a much more even roast than was before possible. Aspects of this technique remain in many of today’s roasters.

Dahlia (Dahlia variabilis Desf., family: Asteraceae, origin: Mexico) is regarded as a premium specialty cut flower besides its utilization for garden decoration and growing as a potted flowering plant. The dahlia flower symbolizes elegance, inner strength, creativity and dignity. It is herbaceous rooted perennial valued for their majestic and attractive display of colourful spectacular flowers. The generic name “Dahlia” was coined by Swedish botanist “Andreas Dahl”. Dahlia was introduced in India during 1857 under the auspices of the “Agri-Horticultural Society of India”, Calcutta. Dahlia exhibit wide range of flower from and size ranging from miniatures (less than 2.5 cm across), to giant (more than 40 cm in diameter). Dahlia flowers profusely and its easy cultivation have made these very popular worldwide. The commercial value of this crop has been exploited in certain countries only. The Netherlands is claimed to be the largest producer of tuberous rooted dahlias. Other countries cultivating Dahlia as a specialty cut flower are Japan, France, South Africa, the U. K., Italy, Germany and the United States. The commercial cultivation of dahlia in Indian subcontinent is limited to hills and plains of Eastern India (Misra and Misra, 2017).

Holland takes the lead in dahlia bulb production cultivation neeary 400 ha, followed by France and Chile. There are 41 international associations concerned with the cultivation and spreading awareness about dahlia as a potential specialty cut flower and flowering potted perennial. Societies such as National Dahlia Society in the UK, the American Dahlia Society (ADS), other groups of New Zealand in European countries, France and Germany have been maintaining Dahlia germplasm for developing novel flower colour and breeding dahlias for their uniform and profuse flowering, longer flower duration, stem sturdiness and longer vase life.

6.1 List Introduction

1. List is a collection of different values or different types of items.

2. Unlike array in c/c++/java a list is capable of storing different types of values under one roof.

3. The items in the list are separated with the comma (,) and enclosed with the square brackets [].

4. List provides us the facility to store multiple types of in a single unit.

Example:

a=[“ram”,1,“shyam”,12.5]

b=[1,2,3,4]

a[0]=ram

a=[“ram”,1,“shyam”,12.5]

print(a)

print(a[0])

ram

Introduction

Nanofertilizers are products of nanotechnology that are created or modified from conventional fertilizers, bulk fertilizer materials, or plant extracts. They use different methods such as chemical, physical, mechanical, or biological processes to produce nanosized particles that can enhance soil fertility, crop productivity, and quality (KhetiGaadi 2022). Nanofertilizers have a size range of 0.1–100 nm, which is similar to the size of plant cell wall (20 nm), making them easier to be absorbed by plants (Tiwari 2022).

All human beings are prone to a state of anger, which affects their performance during their day-to-day life. Anger and aggression are the same, although they are often experienced at the same time. Anger is an emotion, whereas aggression is a behavior or form of intervention. Whereas anger is internal, aggression is external. But both are typically associated with physiological arousal.

A person who perceives that wrong has occurred, which should be corrected, usually feels anger. Anger is a reaction against somebody, a person, an event, or an object. It is resentment to some injustice which has been perceived to have been meted out. The emotion of anger leads to aggressive behavior, especially among adolescents and teenagers. Aggression further causes pain to individuals.

Let us try to understand what we mean by anger, aggression, and pain, and how to manage them.

Marigold is one of the dominant loose flower crops in India, particularly important for religious ceremonies, festivals, weddings, garlands and decoration. The principal cultivated types include African marigold (Tagetes erecta) and French marigold (Tagetes patula). The chapter discusses the origin, distribution, genetics, botanical characteristics and important varieties of marigold. It also highlights emerging applications such as lutein extraction, natural colourants, culinary uses and companion planting. Detailed production practices cover climate, soil, propagation, nursery management, land preparation, nutrient management, planting, irrigation, pinching and flower harvesting. Important pests and diseases, postharvest handling and yield are also discussed for efficient commercial production.

Abstract

Climate change is the biggest problem of today, resulting in thawing glaciers, changes in crop yield, and disturbances of water resources not only in India but in the entire world. Crop yield were predicted according mid century (2050s) by using IPCC Scenario A2 and studied impact of climate change. Out of 80 districts of Uttar Pradesh the three were selected for the case study areas namely Meerut, Kanpur and Hamirpur. FAO based model ET₀ Calculator 3.1 and Aquacrop 3.1 Plus were used to estimate reference evapotranspiration and crop yields respectively by using two major food crops rice and wheat. Crop yield were estimated the present climatic conditions (2005) and mid-century condition (2050s). According to the comparison of simulation results for present and future scenarios, crop yield of rice and wheat was predicted to increase in the mid- century (2050s). However, food security was predicted to become a threat in future, because the increase in population till the 2050s is projected, and yield was increases in the major food crops. In order to sustain the growing population, there would be required in the future, a large area for growing rice and wheat in comparison to the area presently, to meet the same food availability per capita. Hence, there would be a need to increase the production of the food crops in order to meet the growing demands of food in the study areas.

Keywords: Crop yield, Global warming, Future, Production

Advertising plays a crucial role in modern business by promoting products, services, and brands to target audiences. With the evolution of technology and communication, various media have emerged to deliver advertisements effectively. Each medium has its unique advantages and is selected based on factors such as target audience, budget, and marketing goals. This chapter explores the various media for advertising, their benefits, and their suitability for different marketing strategies.

Traditional Media for Advertising

1. Print Media

Types of Print Media for Advertising

Print media comprises various formats that businesses and organizations use for advertising. The most common types include

1. Newspapers: Newspapers are one of the oldest and most trusted forms of print media. They offer advertisers a broad readership and localized targeting.

Introduction
Because of their useful uses, porous substances are of scientific interest. Depending on the size of the pores, these solids are categorized as microporous, mesoporous, and macroporous. Microporous solids are defined as having pores that are 2 nm or smaller (Figure 1) (Zheng et al., 2002). Solids that are mesoporous fall between 2 and 50 nm, while those that are macroporous are larger than 50 nm (Zheng et al., 2002).
Over the past 20 years, the synthesis of MOFs has garnered a lot of attention since it may produce a wide range of visually pleasing structures that may also be very useful for applications in other porous material-related domains. Coordination polymers, or MOFs (Figure 2), are a type of crystalline materials that are currently garnering a lot of attention because of their appealing qualities. Metal ions serve as connectors and organic bridging ligands as linkers, forming the compound’s backbone. The ligand’s chemical structure and the connecting metals’ characteristics determine whether MOFs will develop the appropriate architectural, chemical, and physical characteristics (Hu et al., 2004). They are permeable and can form structures in one, two, or three dimensions. Because of their intriguing topologies and potential uses as functional materials for gas purification, gas separation, gas storage, and adsorption (Sculley et al., 2011; Friscic, 2012; Lu et al., 2011; Burnett et al., 2012; Lin et al., 2009), molecular magnets (Kang et al., 2012; Zhang et al., 2012; He et al., 2013; Dang et al., 2010; Feng et al., 2012; Ranocchiari et al., 2011; Sumida et al.,2012), heterogeneous catalysis (Sonnauer et al.,2009; Kreno et al.,2012), luminescence, catalysts, and sensors (Chughtai et al.,2015), MOFs and coordination polymers (CPs) are of great interest to modern inorganic chemistry for their logical designation and synthesis. The potential of metal-organic frameworks as appropriate candidates for the detection of a number of pertinent organic and inorganic analytes, such as biomolecules, ionic species, hazardous compounds, environmental contaminants, etc., has been encouragingly realized. MOFs are among the leaders in the development of materials for realtime sensing applications because of their practical ability to tap various types of photophysical processes, even when they are present simultaneously, as well as their freedom to adjust their electronic characteristics and pore surfaces for

2.1 Introduction
As time passes, the customers are used to the practice of having short life for the products, which they buy and use. This is because of the globalization of business and growing global competition all over the world. The companies engaged in manufacturing and selling the products which are used at large volume by households and partly by industries, introduce new models to attract customers and to have more market share. This in turn has impacts on customer buying and retention decisions of those products. Though the companies introduce new models, they are expected to keep the prices of the products at affordable ranges so that there is always a larger customer segment to buy those products. This is like egg or chicken situation, because companies introduce many new models to out beat competition and in turn customers expect improved versions of those models in shorter time intervals. This forces companies to continuously engage themselves to come out with new models or improved models which have convergence of technologies to give maximal customer satisfaction. So, creativity in product design becomes an essential requirement of the product development teams of the companies.
2.2 Product Design
Product design aims to include the following tasks to solve the problems of the users or address expected needs of customers in a given market. These tasks are human intensive.
i. Understanding end-users’ requirements
ii. Imagining alternate product ideas to address their needs

Agronomic Research

Statistical tools are used in all branch of agriculture. It is mainly used for efficient planning of experiments and for interpreting experimental data. A good researcher should be aware of statistical techniques, which helps not only summarization of data but also interpretation of data.

10.1. Parameters Used in Statistics

Population

The aggregate or totality of all possible objects possessing the specified characteristic is called a population. Thus, a population may consist of all plants in a plot or field.

Sample

A portion of the population is known as sample. For statistical inferences about a population from a sample, it is essential that the samples are representative of the population.

A. Write the full form of the following:

i.         AAFCO: Association of American Feed Control Officials.

ii.        AAS: Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry

iii.       HPLC: High Performance/Pressure Liquid Chromatography

iv.       GLC: Gas Liquid Chromatography

v.        AFRC: Agriculture & Food Research Council.

vi.       AICRP: All India Coordinated Research Project.

vii.      AOAC: Association of Official Analytical Chemists

viii.     ARC: Agricultural Research Council (United Kingdom)

ix.      BIS: Bureau of Indian Standard

x.      CIRC: Central Institute for Research on Cattle, Meerut

xi.     CIRG: Central Institute for Research on Goats, Makhdoom.

xii.    CLFMA: Compounded Livestock Feed Manufacturers Association (of India)

xiii.   COP 22: 22nd Conference of Parties.

Remote sensing

It is the art and science of obtaining information about an object, area, or phenomenon through the analysis of data acquired by a device without being in physical contact. Remote sensing technology involves acquiring information about the earth’s surface and atmosphere, using satellite based sensor, interpretation, of spectral measurements and characterization of land resources and environmental phenomena.

The information recorded by this technology is not visible to humankind. It provides synoptic view as well as three-dimensional view of larger area. And data are received periodically and helps in monitoring the changes at short intervals. The data recording is unbiased one which is stored permanently and can be used in many applications. Thus, processing of data is faster than the conventional interpretation method. Thus, soil resources data collected by extensive ground surveys and soil maps were prepared using cartographic techniques these were tedious, costly and time consuming. Multi date, multi spectral and real time satellite data provide a reliable accurate tool for assessment and repeat coverage of the same area at the same local time for monitoring soil resources (Joshi, 2013). In remote sensing, reflected energy from the object is recorded by a sensor. The information about the object is obtained through the analysis of reflected rays. Three energy interactions occurs when electromagnetic energy falls on any surface feature i.e., reflection, absorption and transmission.

What is Performance Appraisal?

Performance Appraisal (PA) is the process through which an individual employee’s behaviour and accomplishments for a fixed time period are measured and evaluated. The major purpose of measuring and evaluating is to assess the worth or value of an employee. Performance appraisal is a systematic and objective way of judging the relative worth or ability of an employee in performing his task. Performance appraisal helps to identify those who are performing their assigned tasks well and those who are not and the reasons for such performance.

Water

• Water constitutes about 35–95% of the different portion of the plants. The leaves of the plant contain 35–95% water, Roots 60–90% and Fleshy fruit contain 70–90% water.
• Water is one of the most important inputs essential for the production of crops.
• Plants need it continuously during their life and in huge quantities.
• It profoundly influences photosynthesis, respiration, absorption, translocation and utilization of mineral nutrients etc.
• Soil needs the application of water to:
• Remove stress condition.
• Release nutrients in the soil solution for absorption by plants.
• Preparation of land for raising crops.
• To maintain the temperature and humidity of the soil micro–climate and the activity of soil microbes at optimum level.