eChapters

Due to the paucity of clinical data, therapeutic management measures available with domestic animal-practice needs to be extrapolated for due usage in case of captive wild animals reared in zoos, zoological parks and zoological gardens.

Mushrooms is known for its delicious and nutritious food with highly digestible lysine rich protein, vitamins and minerals, Mushroom serves as a low calorie food which lacks fats and are low in carbohydrate. They are rich in folic acid, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, copper and iron and vitamin-B complex. In place of starch, mushroom contains sorbitol and linolenic acid. They are excellent sources of thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, biotin, folic acid and vitamin B-12. Further, mushrooms are also reported to have high medicinal attributes. A large number of mushrooms contain biological active polysaccharide protein complex having anti-tumor, immune-modulating and antioxidant properties.

Ice cream has evolved from simple frozen preparations into a sophisticated food industry combining dairy science, food chemistry, refrigeration, microbiology, processing technology, packaging, and cold-chain management. This chapter introduces the historical development of ice cream and explains its transformation from a luxury product into a widely consumed frozen food. It examines the characteristics of the industry, major categories of ice cream and related frozen products, flavour classifications, composition, and quality characteristics. The chapter also presents the basic manufacturing process, important quality-control parameters, common manufacturing challenges, and emerging industry trends, providing a foundation for understanding ice cream as both a technical product and a commercial business.

ABSTRACT

The present study was conducted to screen fungal isolates for chitinolytic activity and to clone full-length endochitinase gene from fungus. Among the ten isolates tested (Trichoderma harzianum 1, 2, 3, Trichoderma koningii, Trichoderma virens, Trichoderma viride, Aspergillus oryzae Metarshizium verrucasia, Bauveria bassiana, Nomuraea releyi), Trichoderma koningii showed higest colloidal chitin hydrolysis when screened in Mandels and Reese (1969) salts supplemented with colloidal chitin as the sole carbon source followed by Aspergillus oryzae. Nomuraea releyi showed least chitinolytic activity. Other isolates were on par with each other. The use of diagnostic primers showed specific amplification of 260 bp in Trichoderma harzianum isolates 1,2 and3, Trichoderma koningii and Trichoderma virens, which confirmed presence of endochitinase gene.

Attempts were made to clone full-length endochitinase gene from isolates showing chitinolytic activity. A unique amplicon of 1.7Kb from Trichoderma virens was cloned into linear pTZ57R/T vector with T over hangs. The confirmation of clones was made through blue/white colony assay, plasmid mini-preparation and PCR amplification of these plasmids, sequencing and BLAST search at NCBI. Among the clones confirmed, pSAV804 was sequenced that showed 98% homology with other reported endochitinase genes from Trichoderma spp at DNA and protein level. 85.7% of the protein is conserved. The ORF of the sequence comprises of 822 bases, which deduces 274 amino acids. The position of primer sequence in the insert and BLAST results confirmed the reverse orientation in the vector. The endochitinase gene now needs to clone into the expression and plant expression vectors for further studies.

Introduction

Climate smart agriculture (CSA) refers to the incorporation of adaptation and mitigation practices in agriculture that enhances the system-resistance and recovery-mechanism against climatic hazards. Climatic hazards / disturbances include drought, flood, heat / cold wave, erratic precipitation, sudden dry spell etc. In nutshell, CSA is the ability of the system to bounce back. It can also be explained as an approach to build-up resilience of agricultural systems, to increase adaptive capacities of farming communities to climate change and variability, and to ensure food security (Prasad et al., 2015).

Climate change can be defined as a statistically significant variation in either the mean state of the climate or in its variability, persisting of an extended period, typically three decades or longer (Pathak et al., 2014; NAAS, 2013, Bhattacharyya et al., 2016). The surface air temperature, sea level rise, occurrence of extreme events (heat wave, cyclone, flash flood) is the direct evidences of climate change. The annual average surface temperature has increased by 0.87^°C in 100 years (IPCC, 2018). Recent report revealed that more than 90% of Northern Hemisphere land areas outside the tropics showed at least 1^°C above average, whereas temperatures were less extreme in Southern Hemisphere. Importantly, temperatures were above normal over most of the ocean areas. Global sea level rose to about 15 mm, in between November (2014) and February (2016), as a result of ElNino, which was well above the post-1993 trend of 3.0-3.5 mm year^-1. However, Indian summer monsoon rainfall since 1901 to 2012 showed no long-term trends, with some regional changes. Importantly, night temperatures have increased sharply during recent years, which couple with erratic precipitation could significantly affect agricultural production. The fifth IPCC (IPCC, 2014) reports clearly brought out global and regional impacts of climate change on Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU). South Asia has been characterized as one of the most vulnerable regions. Impacts of climate change witnessed all over the world; however, countries like India is more vulnerable because of its huge population primary dependent on agriculture for livelihood, predominance of small and marginal farmers, and fragmented land holding.

When the body is exposed to a microbe or a foreign substance, the body makes some response which is called immune response. Immune responses are initiated by the interaction between a ligand, present on the surface of the microbe or secreted by the microbe or a foreign substance, and a receptor protein on the cell’s surface or a soluble receptor. There are several factors such as shape, charge and presence of other receptors which influence this interaction between the ligand and receptor. This ligand which is recognized by the immune system is called antigen. An antigen can be defined as an organism, a molecule, or part of a molecule which is recognized by the immune system. Often, the term immunogen is also used for antigen. Though, antigen and immunogen are used as synonyms but specifically, they are different from each other.

Mutation is defined as a sudden heritable change in gene or in chromosome structure. The process of hereditary change is termed mutation and the individuals affected by the change are called mutants. Besides recombinations, mutations are the cause of genetic variation from which every breeding activity proceeds. By means of mutations, the multiplicity of the types of a population is not only increased by one genotype, but also by large number of further new genotypes due to possibility of subsequent recombinations of mutant with the existing genotypes.

• General considerations

 • Collection of synovial fluid

• Examination of synoival fluid

 • Physical examination

 • Chemical examination

 • Cytological examination

 • Microbiological examination

 • Examination for immune complexes

 • Miscellaneous examination

 • Inflammatory conditions of joints

 • Non-infectious arthritis

 • Infectious arthritis

 • Immune complex mediated arthritis

Introduction

Culture of aquatic organisms is a significant economic endeavor that benefits millions of people worldwide by generating employment opportunities and ensuring food security. One of the lucrative aquaculture ventures in many countries is the cultivation of freshwater pearls. Prior to the development of cultured pearl farming, pearls were harvested from the Gulf of Mannar, the region between India and Sri Lanka, the Bay of Bengal, the Egyptian coast (Red Sea), and the Persian Gulf (Saudi Arabian coast) (Matlins 2001; Strack 2008), which benefited the nation’s economy. However, the natural pearl fisheries have been depleted as a result of indiscriminate fishing, habitat destruction, and pollution. Realizing its economic significance, pearl farming has developed into a successful aquaculture activity to support the nation’s aqua-economy through innovation and standardization of farming techniques.

Pearls are cultured in both marine and freshwater environments, and they are particularly created in bivalves with an inner nacreous layer. Many countries like China, Japan, Australia, Indonesia, French Polynesia, Cook Islands, Philippines, India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia and Mexico are major pearl producing countries through farming (Gervis and Sims 1992; Southgate 2007; Southgate et al. 2008 & Saurabh et al. 2021). In addition to the economic benefit like other bivalves these pearl producing mussels has positive environmental impact and also has several nutritional benefits. Freshwater bivalves including these pearl mussels are widely used in aquaculture for aquaculture-effluent treatment of aquaculture farms. The shells of bivalves are the source of two highly versatile chemical compounds, calcium carbonate or calcium oxide which is having wide industrial applications. The shells are used in cosmetics and traditional medicine, handicraft and jewelry. These economic and environmental benefits have catalyzed expansion of the bivalve aquaculture industry in various regions of world. During 2009 to 2018 the average freshwater pear cultured production was 1928 tonne while China continued to dominate world freshwater pearl culture (FAO, 2020). However, the freshwater pearl culture production has declined from 3321 tonne in 2009 to 703 tonne in 2018. This drastic decline may be due to overexploitation, habitat degradation, pollution, lack of proper management and many more and it has threatened long term sustainability of fisheries and this farming sector. It gives an alarming call for all fisheries managers and policy makers to formulate management measures to implement for the betterment of the sector. Though this farming technology has a great potential to increase the aqua economy of the country, growth should be sustainable.

Introduction
Acid sulphate soils are formed when pyrite within a soil layer is oxidised, generating sulphuric acid. The oxidation of pyrite often results in yellow mottles of jarosite. The pH levels in greatly affected areas are often less than 4.0, and the associated environmental impacts include fish kills, retarded growth of crops and changes in water chemistry. Acid soils are distributed in tropical and subtropical regions, constituting approximately 30% of the ice-free land in the world, which is 50% of the world’s arable land. In China and India, 212 Mha or 12% of the agricultural land is classified as acidic. In India, about 28% of the total geographical area is affected by acidity of different degrees. Acid sulphate soils (ASSs) are a group of these soils having high soil acidity and other soil function limitations. These soils were termed as Kattecleigrondon or Kattakali by the Dutch farmers in the seventeenth century meaning ‘Cat Clays’ in English for soils of some reclaimed areas that became gradually highly acidic and developed prominent yellowish mottles and crusts composed of jarosite and related sulphates; in northern Germany, similar clays were called Maibolt.
Occurrence
They occur in many regions of the world, mostly along coastal areas where the land is inundated by sea water. Countries having extensive area of acid sulphate soils are:

ABSTRACT

A satellite based earth observation system enhances our understanding of the entire earth as an integrated system. Remotely sensed data gives accuracy and complete data. To study the coastal zone or area remote sensing is on of the best technology to monitor the regular changes over the time. Here satellite data used to understand the distribution of prawn farms along the Nagappattinam coast. It has stretched from River Coleroon in the north to Point Calimer in south. Nagappattinam coast rocked by tsunami in 2004 and it damaged the whole life of coastal and fishing people. This paper has attempted to analyse the distribution of prawn farms and impact of tsunami in the Nagappattinam coast using remote sensing.

1. INTRODUCTION

Nagappattinam coast is located on the eastern part of Nagappattinam. It is a unique immemorial for its agricultural activities and lying in the deltaic region of Cauvery River. Nagappattinam coast (Fig 1) is peninsular delta area bounded by Bay of Bengal on the east, Palk Strait on the south, and Thiruvarur and Thanjavur districts on the west and Cuddalore on the north. The study area is located between 10^o 10’ N to 11^o 50’ N latitudes and 79^o 45’ E to 80^o 00’ E longitudes. Nagappattinam coast has covered an area of 935 sq. km.

• General considerations

 • Indications

 • Collection of cerebrospinal fluid

 • Sub-occipital puncture

 • Lumbar puncture

 • Examination

 • Physical examination

 • Chemical examination

 • Cytological examination

 • Microbiological examination

The tissue system

A group of tissues performing a similar function irrespective of its position in the plant body is called a tissue system. In 1875, Sachs recognized three tissue systems in the plants.

a) Epidermal tissue system

b) Vascular tissue system

c) Fundamental tissue system.

a) Epidermal tissue system

Epidermal tissue system is the outermost covering of plants. It consists of epidermis, stomata and epidermal outgrowths. Epidermis is generally composed of single layer of parenchymatous cells compactly arranged without intercellular spaces. But it is interrupted by stomata. In leaves, some specialized cells which surround the stomata are called the guard cells. Chloroplasts are present only in the guard cells of the epidermis. Other epidermal cells usually do not have chloroplasts. The outer wall of epidermis is usually covered by cuticle. Stoma is a minute pore surrounded by two guard cells. The stomata occur mainly in the epidermis of leaves. In some plants such as sugarcane, the guard cells are bounded by some special cells. They are distinct from other epidermal cells. These cells are called subsidiary or accessory cells. Trichomes and root hairs are some epidermal outgrowths. The unicellular or multicellular appendages that originate from the epidermal cells are called trichomes. Trichomes may be branched or unbranched. Rhizodermis has two types of epidermal cells - long cells and short cells. The short cells are called trichoblasts. Root hairs are produced from these trichoblasts.

Materia Medica

The word ‘Materia medica’ is a Latin term that means medical matters or materials of medicine. All systems of medicine, based on drug therapies, have their own Materia medica. It is known by different names in different systems of medicine. It is termed as pharmacology in Allopathy, Dravya Guna in Ayurveda, Guna Padam in Siddha, and Materia Medica in Homeopathy. Pharmacology is based on physico-chemical properties of drug substances. Dravya Guna is based on Thridosa Sidhanda (vatha, pitha and kapha). Guna padam is based on Mucheer Amaippu (vatham, pitham, silatumam). Materia medica is based on dynamic properties of drugs applied on Law of Similars.

General Materia Medica

It is the body of collected knowledge about the therapeutic properties of any substance (drug) used for healing with their sources, preparations, doses, and use.

Introduction

Climate change is a big phenomena, it is having a huge impact on agriculture from ancient to present time. It has received wide attention and debate as the public concern has increased about unforeseen change in climate. The impact of climate change on Indian agriculture will be significant since more than 60% of Indian population depends on agriculture for their livelihood with the contribution of agriculture to GDP is approximately 20 percent. In recent decades, human induced changes in climate has the focus of scientific and social attention.

1. Sigatoka
Diagnostic Symptoms
• Early symptoms appear on the young leaves.
• Small spindle shaped spots on foliage with greyish centreand yellowish halo running parallel to veins.
• Spots are mostly seen along the edge of the leaf with defined margin and possess dark brown to black margin. Spots coalesce and whole leaf blade dries up.
• On the upper surface of the spots, fructificationsof the fungus appear as black specks unevenly and individual bananas appear undersized and their flesh develops a buff pinkish colour, and store poorly (Fig. 1).
Etiology
Scientific Classification
Kingdom : Fungi
Division : Eumycota
Sub- division : Deuteromycotina
 

Introduction
Waterlogging refers to the accumulation of excessive water in the root zone, leading to anaerobic conditions. This surplus water hampers the exchange of gases with the atmosphere, and biological processes deplete the oxygen supply in both soil and water, resulting in anaerobiosis, anoxia, or oxygen deficiency. In India, approximately 11.6 million hectares, constituting 8.3% of its net sown area, are affected by waterlogging (Planning Commission, 2011). According to Brundtland and Khalid (1987), available estimates indicate an annual global loss of 1.5 million hectares of irrigated land due to salinity and waterlogging. Regrettably, data regarding the occurrence and extent of these issues are inconsistent and incomplete. More recent estimates, provided by Datta and Joshi (1992), range from 5.5 million to 13 million hectares. After conducting a comprehensive global survey, it has been determined that submerged and waterlogged soils cover approximately 5 to 7% of the Earth’s land surface. The total area of waterlogged soil worldwide is estimated to be around 700 to 1000 million hectares. Tropical swamps, rice fields, and floodplains collectively represent nearly 14%, 12%, and 10% of the total waterlogged area, respectively. In India, Odisha, West Bengal, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh have the highest concentration of waterlogged soil, with an estimated total area of one million hectares. The eastern region bears a significant portion of this burden, with over 20% of the affected land suffering from surface waterlogging, which severely diminishes productivity. Waterlogging is characterized by the soil becoming unproductive and infertile due to excess moisture, creating anaerobic conditions known as waterlogged soils. Waterlogged soil presents a significant challenge to agricultural productivity and soil health, characterized by excessive water saturation that restricts oxygen availability to plant roots. In this chapter, we delve into the multifaceted aspects of waterlogged soil, exploring its causes, defining characteristics, and far-reaching consequences. The serves as a comprehensive overview, underscoring the detrimental impact of waterlogging on agriculture, ecosystems, and human well-being. It identifies key factors contributing to

Consumer Behaviour / Buyers Behaviour

Marketing management can succeed easily and smoothly of the behaviour of present & potential consumers are understood properly. Marketing success or failure depends on target customers individual and group reactions. The individual buyer behaves in a different design and pattern depending upon the internal & external marketing environment. The individual attitude & motivation along with economic conditions influence the consumers to behave in a certain fashion. The consumer behaviour is primarily understood in the content of consumption goods. The factors influencing their behaviours are demographic, economic, sociological, cultural and psychological.
The aim of marketing is to need and satisfy target customers needs & wants. The field of consumer behaviour studies how individuals, groups and organizations select, buy, use & dispose of goods, services, ideas or experiences to satisfy their needs and desires.

Abstract

Physical properties of food are aspects such as colour, structure, texture, rheology and interfacial properties, and composition. We have a range of instrumental methods for objectively characterising and measuring food structure and physical properties. These are useful for applications such as new product development, benchmarking, reformulation and specification.

Colour

Consistent and accurate measurements of the colour and visual appearance of food products is extremely important. Various methods are available for colour measurement, allowing a wide variety of sample types to be measured. Colour measurement results are typically provided on the CIELAB scale. Others are available on request.

Mechanization should not be an end in itself and therefore, in a free choice situation, Governments should refrain from making policies which will stipulate by which means or by how much, agriculture will be mechanized. The type and degree of mechanization should be decided by the producer to best suit his business and his own particular circumstances, and the choice of suitable methods will therefore be just one of a number of choices that the farmer has to make. The decision on if and how to mechanize is often a complicated mix of reasons with economic reasons paramount. The introduction of machines will not only make agriculture more acceptable but will also provide opportunities for the use of higher intelligence, skill and initiative. This chapter attempts to work out the comparative economics of some of the machinery that are useful for hill regions.

For the sustainable development of agricultural mechanization, it is needed to locally fabricate widely used agricultural tools, implements and machinery. However, the prevailing policy does not favour production of agricultural machinery locally (high custom duty of raw materials, no support in promotion, irregular power supply, high electricity cost, poor research & testing support etc.). Hence there is need of reform in policy and program to encourage and support local fabricators to fabricate/manufacture agricultural machinery locally. There is need of testing and standardization of agricultural machinery to reduce the accidents related to agricultural machinery and to provide quality standard agricultural machinery to the farmers.