eChapters

Black pepper (Piper nigrum L.), famous as “Black Gold” and also known the “King of Spices” is the most important agricultural commodities of commerce and trade in India. It is the most important, most popular and most widely used spice in the World. Of the total spices traded internationally, black pepper accounts for 34 per cent. South West India is the traditional home of this important spice, particularly the Malabar Coast. Black pepper is also grown in tropical zones such as the Asia Pacific Region, mainly India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, China, Vietnam and Cambodia. Outside the Asia Pacific region, the crop is distributed in Brazil, Mexico, Guatemala, etc., totaling about 26 countries. It is grown successfully between 20°N and 20°S latitude and from mean sea level to 1500 meters above sea level. World’s black pepper production varies in the range of 2.7 to 3.35 tonnes annually.

Definition and Scope
Offshore aquaculture, also known as open-ocean aquaculture, is an emerging approach to farming aquatic organisms in exposed, deeper waters further from the coastline than traditional nearshore aquaculture. While a precise definition remains elusive due to variations in regulatory frameworks and geographical contexts, offshore aquaculture is generally characterized by its location in deeper, more energetic waters with stronger currents and increased distance from shore (Holmer, 2010). This distinction from nearshore operations, typically situated in sheltered bays or estuaries, has significant implications for environmental impact, species suitability, and technological requirements.
Key characteristics of offshore aquaculture
• Increased depth and distance from shore: Offshore aquaculture operations are typically situated in waters deeper than 30 meters and at a significant distance from the coast, often beyond the territorial waters of a country (Buck et al., 2018). This exposes the cultured organisms to stronger currents, greater wave action, and a more dynamic environment compared to nearshore farms

3.1. INTRODUCTION TO PLANT BREEDING

What is Plant Breeding?: Plant breeding is an art and science which deals with changing genotypes of the plants, to adapt them to the service of human being. (or) The application of genetic and cytogenetics principles in crop improvement are called plant breeding.

Specific objectives of plant breeding: The main objectives of the plant breeding is to improve the characteristics of crop plants which are agronomically and economically desirable

1. Area, Production and Productivity of Horticultural Crops (2013-2014)

INTRODUCTION

Bangladesh is a very small country of 1,47,570 square kilometer area having a population of 150 millions. The country has only 8.29 million hectare (Bangladesh Krishi Diary, 2003) cultivable land against the huge population. The land area is gradually decreasing because of population growth, industrialization and other infrastructure development. This results in a declining trend of per capita land availability from 0.13 hectare to 0.06 hectare during the last few decades (1960 to 2000) (Food and Agriculture Organisation, Bangladesh Country Profile).

In order to ensure food security of this vast population and with the emergence of “Green Revolution” in 1960s, priority was given to produce more food in terms of grain through intensification of land usage. New crop variety (HYV), chemical fertilizers, pesticides and irrigation were introduced. As a result, immediate objective of more grain (rice) production had increased and Bangladesh had temporarily achieved self sufficiency in food (rice). Bangladesh made steady progress in crop agriculture in the post-independent period. Cropping intensity increased from 148 to 179 per cent and food grain production almost doubled during the period from 1969/70 to 1992/93 (Hoque, 2007).

However, a lot of HYVs, hybrids, which were introduced, required increased amount of chemicals, and over time they took a toll on the fertility of soil, gradually decreasing acreage production despite usage of high doses of chemical fertilizer and pesticides. Moreover, the natural disasters such as floods, droughts, etc., continued to result in fluctuation in production. Wide fluctuations in production led to large instability in food grain prices having serious implications for household food security and the welfare of the people. The attainment of food security and rural economic development, therefore, could no longer rely on the production of rice alone.

Various studies have demonstrated that the cashew tree responds to the application of mineral nutrients, though the responses are significantly affected by plant age, the genotype utilized, the conditions of cultivation, soil and climate and of the crop management (Barros et al., 1984; Ghosh, 1990; Ximenes, 1995; Bezerra et al., 1999; Crisóstomo et al., 2005). The crop develops well under semi-arid conditions, in which the problems associated with water availability and salt excess in the root environment are common. These two factors interfere with the acquisition of nutrients, in that the levels of nutrients in the plants are affected both by direct effects on absorption and transportation processes and by indirect effects associated with a reduction of growth of the various plant organs including the root system. The effect of salinity on plant nutrition depends on the types of salts that predominate in the cultivation environment which can result in a deficiency of essential nutrients and an excess of toxic ions. These changes under salt stress are accompanied by a loss of structural and functional integrity of the cellular membranes, a reduction in activity of various vital enzymes, and a diminished capacity of the roots to absorb nutrients (Zhu, 2001). On the other hand, water deficit reduces the extraction of nutrients from the soil, limiting the solubilization of nutrients in the root environment and altering the morphology of the root system (Kramer and Boyer, 1995). It should be added that the effects of excess salt and water deficit depend on various factors, including the species under study and the stage of development at which the plants are submitted to these.

Of the various microorganisms present in and around roots, VAM fungi occupy unique ecological position as they are partly inside and partly outside the host. Their internal phase encounters competition and antagonism from other beneficial symbiotic microbes while their external phase faces competition and antagonism from beneficial non-symbiotic microbes present around the roots. Since they have an ensured source of nutrients from the host, they have comparatively better conditions for their growth and may exert greater effect on plants with other symbiotic and non-symbiotic microbes in and around their roots. It has been pointed out that investigations are needed on the interactions between VAM fungi and these beneficial microbes, and their effect on growth and productivity in plants. A bulk of information has been collected related to this aspect; however, authentic generalization has not been possible as yet. Following description gives an account of the work done by Indian mycorrhizasts on the interactions between VAM fungi and other beneficial symbiotic/non-symbiotic microbes in and around the roots.

Onion is one of the most important commercial vegetable crops grown all over India. Onions are bulbous, biennial, herbaceous and are typically grown as annual, which give off a distinctive and pungent odour when the tissues are crushed. Characteristic pungency and flavour in onion are due to a volatile sulphur compound, allyl-propyl disulphide. This organo sulphur compound has potential for anticarcinogenic secondary metabolites. Pungency varies with cultivar, growing condition, stage of maturity and storage conditions.

It is such a unique vegetable, used throughout the year in the form of salad or condiment or for cooking with other vegetables. Onions are used for flavour, aroma and taste in preparation of vegetables and used in the form of dehydrated, freezing, canning and pickling. Onion salt is prepared by dehydration and used in flavouring.

ABSTRACT

Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers ex Hook.f. & Thoms. is a versatile liana rich in various active compounds having diverse chemical structures. Limited research has been done on the biological properties and the probable medicinal applications of the individual isolated molecules actually responsible for the medicinal nature of the plant. Recent advances in the discovery of active constituents from T. cordifolia and their biological impact in disease cure has led to an increase interest on this plant across the globe. The therapeutic virtue of giloy used in traditional and Indian System of Medicine (ISM) has been well established through advance testing and evaluation, both pre-clinical and clinical trials in different diseased conditions. These studies make this indigenous drug plant a novel candidate for bio-prospection and drug development for the treatment of diseases such as cancer, ulcers, liver disorders, heart diseases, diabetes and post-menopausal syndrome where sufficient treatments are still not available. Over the past few decades, a noteworthy progress has been achieved in cancer prevention and treatment, and still there remains a need for effective treatment program. One of the best possible approaches with immense potential is chemoprevention, which involves the use of natural, synthetic or biological molecules to suppress, reverse or prevent cancer or the progression of cancerous cells. It is most likely that many agents present in specific herbs, herbal products and natural dietary factors will have an effect throughout the process of carcinogenesis. Thus, a detailed chemical investigation with the aim of isolating novel molecules, their structure elucidation, quantification, validation and pharmacological evaluation in terms of its anticancer potential was carried out on T. cordifolia. The present study was designed to isolate and identify new promising anti-cancer candidates from the aqueous alcoholic extract of T. cordifolia using bioassay-guided fractionation.

This chapter reports the analysis of the data collected from Phase One and Phase Two of the research .The chapter is organized in three sections. The first section presents the analysis of the data collected in the first phase through the administration of the survey questionnaire (Appendix-I). It deals with a study of the potential of Internet as a communication tool through an account of the Internet usage habits of the two cities followed by a presentation of their perception, attitudes and internet adoption among the people.

Introduction

Agricultural production is necessary to fulfil nutritional requirements for human populations and global food security. The agricultural sector also forms the economic backbone of many low-income countries in which millions of farmers are employed (Anushka et al, 2022). However, managing agricultural production to achieve multiple objectives of providing food, supporting livelihoods and protecting biodiversity and forests is a challenge especially in tropical, low-income countries (Anushka et al, 2022). Usually, the growth in global agricultural production is largely driven by commercial and export oriented commodities. One such agricultural commodity that has high global demand is cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.). Cashew is presently cultivated in 33 countries including India in the world. Global land area for cashew cultivation between 1980 and 2018 has seen an eleven-fold increase from 526,250 ha to 5,972,724 ha (Anushka et al, 2022).

Fresh vegetables are essential part of a healthy diet as it is an important source of vitamins, minerals and fibers. The nutritional content of vegetables varies considerably, though generally they contain little protein, fat and varying proportions of vitamins such as Vitamin A, Vitamin K and Vitamin B6, pro-vitamins, dietary minerals and carbohydrates (Woodruff, 1995; Whitaker, 2001). Vegetables contain multifarious other phytochemicals, some of which have been claimed to have antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral and anti-carcinogenic properties (Steinmetz and Potter, 1996; Gruda, 2005). A balanced diet should contain 250 - 325 g of vegetables and the average human requirement for vegetable is 285 g per person per day (Attavar, 2000). This perception of nutrition makes vegetables as a valued farm output.

4.1 Introduction
There are special casting processes as listed below.
i. Shell casting
ii. Investment casting
iii. Ceramic mould casting
iv. Pressure diecasting
v. Centrifugal casting
vi. CO2 casting process
vii. Stir casting
viii. Squeeze casting
ix. Full mould casting
x. Magnetic casting
xi. Micro casting
4.2 Shell Casting
The complete aspect of shell casting has been already presented under shell pattern in Section 2.4.1.3. For the purpose of reinforcement, it is reproduced here. Sand that has been covered in resin is used as the mould in the casting process known as shell mould casting, or just shell moulding. After pouring molten metal into the mould’s cavity, the mould vaporizes to produce a hard shell. This process will have two or more patterns to give shape and size to the final product to be casted.
The steps of making shell mould are presented below.
1. In the case of two pieces of patterns, make each pattern using iron or steel.
2. A mould is made once the pattern has been made. In this stage, a lubricant is applied after both pattern components have been heated. After that, each pattern piece is placed at the top of a dump box which contains resin covered sand. Then the pattern will absorb the sand.
3. Invert the dump box to free the excess sand particles sticking the patten.

According to the facts, groundwater salinization and the scarcity of freshwater are indeed expanding. In the coming decades, saline water will replace freshwater as the principal resource for agriculture and aquaculture. Over 8.62 million hectares of land in India and over 397 million hectares of land worldwide have been rendered unusable for traditional agriculture as a result of secondary salinization. Use of salinized land and the water resources for aquaculture is a flexible solution to reduce environmental problem with multiple potential benefits on the economic, social, and environmental fronts. As aquaculture demand has increased, new production methods have been developed. Inland saline aquaculture, here defined as a land-based aquaculture system using saline groundwater and surface water, is practised by a number of countries, including Israel, USA, India, and Australia. The possibility that saline groundwater may differ chemically from coastal seawater is one of the key barriers to the growth of inland saline aquaculture. One must either change the chemistry or choose species that can tolerate the fluctuations to get around this. Several species are farmed or evaluated for their potential including finfish like tilapia, Indian Major Carps, catfishes, climbing perch, Asian sea bass, cobia, milkfish, mullet, and sturgeons. By combining the usage of resources, cultural systems play a significant part in attaining the disruptive technology of inland saline aquaculture. This review revealed the finfish species raised in inland saline resources as well as culture methods such as pond-based, tank-based, biofloc, and aquaponic systems for inland saline aquaculture. One of the cutting-edge food production methods required to boost aquaculture productivity and meet the expanding seafood demand is inland saline aquaculture. In spite of this, inland saline aquaculture has yet to become an industrial-scale and rural business to produce sustainably from unutilized lands.

Introduction

Soybean has earned a place of prominence in world agriculture as one of the most important food crops contributing to protein and oil production. Pertaining to the family Fabaceae, soybean is a legume with over 42% protein and 20% oil in its seeds. The crop fits into the production system of monsoon rainy season of India during the period from June to October and can be grown on wide variety of soils; but performs best on fertile heavier soils of clay and silt.

Soybeans originated in Southeast Asia and were first domesticated by Chinese farmers around 1100 BC. By the first century AD, soybeans were grown in Japan and many other countries. Soybean seed from China was planted by a colonist in the British colony of Georgia in 1765.

Introduction of soybean to Indian subcontinent dates back to 1000 AD through silk route from north-eastern India and Himalayan mountains. The black-seeded soybean has been traditionally grown in North and north-eastern regions of India and further spread to different parts of the country. This black-seeded soybean, Kalitur, was the vehicle for soybean revolution in India. The major initiative on soybean cultivation was undertaken during 1963-64 by G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology (GBPUAT), Pantnagar and JNKVV Agricultural University, Jabalpur in collaboration with University of Illinois, USA. The cultivation has further picked up after the researchers took advantage of yellow-seeded material to develop high-yielding varieties that suited Indian conditions. Soybean cultivation got momentum during the 1970s as the vast monsoon fallow lands of Madhya Pradesh provided appropriate niche for its cultivation. Presently soybean is cultivated on nearly 10 million ha land with likely production of above 10 million tonnes.

Diverse soil and climatic conditions prevailing in different parts of the country offer scope for cultivation of a variety of crops in India. Around 250 crops either cultivated or grown under natural habitat are used for vegetable purpose. The crops and varieties vary in their soil and climatic requirements, cultivation practices, resistance to pests and diseases, quality etc.

Considering the climatic conditions for growing vegetable crops and for evolving zone wise technologies and recommendations, the entire country is divided into eight agro- climatic zones under the All India Co-ordinated Research Project (Vegetable Crops) as given below:

Table: Agro-climatic zones and states under each zone

4.1 Introduction

Insecticides, biocontrol agents and resistant varieties are the three important pest management tactics in vogue across the globe. Though several biocontrol agents have been recorded on major pests of economically important crops, mass multiplication techniques for most of them are yet to be perfected, and in several instances, the inundative releases of natural enemies are costlier than chemical insecticides. Moreover, unlike perennial crop ecosystems, the annual crop ecosystems like rice, cotton, sugarcane, pulses, etc. are frequently disturbed and hence, inoculative releases of biocontrol agents are often impractical. Above all, in spite of sustained effort from dedicated plant breeders across the globe, the resistant varieties with outstanding yield potential are very limited in numbers. Genetic engineering of crop plants though paved the way for introducing insecticidal genes more precisely and efficiently, the poorly understood ecological and sociological implications of genetically engineered crops in their target environment resist their strong footing in the pest management programmes in most of the crops especially of food crops. In this backdrop, insecticidal interference is inevitable to manage the insect pests, and they are the only weapon whenever the pest population crosses the economic threshold level.

Abstract: Dry land ecosystems cover about 41% of the earth’s land surface including hyper arid region. There is a considerable difference between them, in which arid region covers 7% of global lands. These are barely productive and provide a meager existence to small populations, usually nomadic with little settlements as in Thar desert. In addition to hyper arid, other types are arid, semi and dry-subhumid, which are in danger of becoming desertified. Environmental conditions are harsh affecting agriculture production. People of Indian arid zone are well acquainted about agroforestry- an age old practice in India, but maintaining only a few trees on farmlands does not serve the growing demand of fodder, fueldwood and food. Adoption of alternate land use systems like alley cropping, lay farming, tree farming, dryland horticulture etc. may intensify crop production and sustain the rural livelihoods. The selection of tree/shrub species may be based on the tolerance towards drought, salitnity/alkalinity prevailing in the region. Based on arrangements and combinations of trees/shrubs with associated crops, agroforestry are categorized into: agri-silviculture, agri-horticulture, agripasture, silvipasture, hortipasture and silviherbal. Common trees are P. cinreraria, T. undulata, Salvadora oleoides, Acacia nilotica, A. tortilis, Ailanthus excelsa, Zizyphus nummularia, Z, mauritiana etc.

12.1 Introduction
 
The design of the experiment includes (i) planning of the experiment (ii) obtaining the relevant information from it regarding the statistical hypothesis under study and (iii) making a statistical analysis of the data. Design of experiment may be defined as the logical construction of the experiment in which the degree of the uncertainty with which the inference is drawn may be well defined. It may also be redefined as the choice of treatments, the method of assigning treatments to experimental units and arrangement of experimental units in varies patterns to suit the requirement of particular problems, are combined known as the design of experiment.