eChapters

Food productivity is decreasing due to detrimental effects of various biotic and abiotic stresses; therefore minimizing these losses is a major area of concern to ensure food security under changing climate. Environmental abiotic stresses, such as drought, extreme temperature, cold, heavy metals, or high salinity, severely impair plant growth and productivity worldwide. Drought, being the most important environmental stress, severely impairs plant growth and development, limits plant production and the performance of crop plants, more than any other environmental factor (Shao et al., 2009). Plant experiences drought stress either when the water supply to roots becomes difficult or when the transpiration rate becomes very high. Available water resources for successful crop production have been decreasing in recent years. Furthermore, in view of various climatic change models scientists suggested that in many regions of world, crop losses due to increasing water shortage will further aggravate its impacts. Drought impacts include growth, yield, membrane integrity, pigment content, osmotic adjustment water relations, and photosynthetic activity (Praba et al., 2009). Drought stress is affected by climatic, edaphic and agronomic factors. The susceptibility of plants to drought stress varies in dependence of stress degree, different accompanying stress factors, plant species, and their developmental stages. Acclimation of plants to water deficit is the result of different events, which lead to adaptive changes in plant growth and physio-biochemical processes, such as changes in plant structure, growth rate, tissue osmotic potential and antioxidant defenses (Duan et al., 2007 and Shakeel et al., 2011).

Abstract 

Rainfed agriculture plays and will continue to play a dominant role in providing food and livestock for an increasing world population. Rainfed agriculture practiced on 80% of the world’ agriculture land area and generates about 70% of the world’s staple food including most of the food in poor communities in developing and least favoured areas. The most recent estimates have put global rainfed croplands at 1.75 billion ha (Bha) at the end of the last millennium, or about 5.5 times the irrigated area in the world . India ranks 1st among the countries that practice rainfed agriculture both in terms of extent 86 (mha) & value production. Agriculture water management deals with the administration of a key input to agricultural production & offers to hope that land and water use will be intensified .Scarcity of water resources and growing ofm competition for water many sectors reduces its availability for irrigation. Effective management of water for crop production in water scare area requires efficient approaches for increasing crop productivity and drought tolerance by genetic improvement and physiological regulation may be the means to achieve efficient & effective use of water. A single approaches would not be able to tackle the forthcoming challenge of producing more food and measures with engineering solutions (water saving ,irrigation method, deficit irrigation, proper deficit sequencing, modernization of irrigation system etc) and agronomic & soil manipulation (seed priming\ seedling age manipulation, direct or wet seeded rice. 

Introduction
Machine learning is a branch of artificial intelligence which is concerned with the development of algorithms and techniques that allow computers to learn. These techniques are tolerant of imprecision, uncertainty, partial truth, and approximation. There have emerged many methods based on machine learning techniques, such as Artificial Neural Networks (NNs), Support Vector Machines (SVMs), Decision Tree (DT), Bayesian Networks (BNs), Hidden Markov Models (HMMs), etc. These techniques attempt to study, model, and analyze very complex phenomena  for which more conventional methods have not yielded low cost, analytic, and complete solutions.

Bioinformatics is the application of information technology to the area of molecular biology. The increase in the number and complexity of biological databases has raised the need for powerful data analysis tools and techniques. To fulfill these requirements, the machine learning discipline has become an everyday tool in bio-laboratories (Inza et al., 2010). Machine learning techniques have been successful in analyzing biological data because of their capabilities in handling randomness and uncertainty of data noise and in approximation.

The Madrid System for the International Registration of Marks is governed by two treaties. The first one is he Madrid Agreement, which was concluded in 1891 and revised at Brussels (1900), Washington (1911), The Hague (1925), London (1934), Nice (1957) and Stockholm (1967), and amended in 1979. The other one is the Protocol related to this agreement which was concluded in 1989. The aims of this protocol are to make the Madrid system more flexible and more compatible with the domestic legislation of certain countries or intergovernmental organizations that had not been able to accede to the Agreement. 

9.1. INTRODUCTION

Maize (Zea mays L. ssp. mays 2n = 20), known as corn in some countries is an important cereal crop of the world. The scientific name from Greek word ‘Zea’ for a kind of grain and West Indian word ‘malnis’ for corn. Maize was domesticated in Mesoamerica and hence formed the Mesoamerican people’s identity and later it spread throughout American continent. Maize is widely cultivated throughout the world and a greater weight of maize is produced each year than any other cereal grain. USA produces almost half of the world’s harvest (42.5%) and other top producing countries include China, Brazil, Mexico, Argentina, India and France. During the year 2007, worldwide maize productivity was around 4970 kg per ha. Maize is the only cereal that can be harvested and used at various stages of plant development. The crop can be cultivated on a wide area from 580 N to 400 S from below sea level to altitudes higher than 3000 m and in areas with 250 mm to more than 5000 mm of rainfall per year (Shaw, 1988, Dowswell et al., 1996).

Introduction

The fruit crop acreage in Kashmir is rapidly increasing and is developing into perennial stretches of monocropping systems. The area of apple in Kashmir 143790 ha. Parallely this has led to increased pests and use of chemical pesticides. As a result, pest resurgence, pesticide residue in fruits, deleterious effect on biological agents and resistance build-up in insects have all complicated pest management (Smith, 1970).In view of the rising export potential of residue free fruits and the crisis situation created by indiscriminate use of pesticides, fruit crops need much more attention in terms of IPM input than what is getting now. It is therefore, necessary to develop and follow a rational approach with greater reliance on IPM to promote sustainability and to reduce the number of application of hazardous chemicals. Integrated pest management requires thorough preplanning even before establishing the fruit orchard which includes selection of suitable site,siol type, improved and pest free scion varieties, resistant rootstock compatible with scion, regular pest and weather monitoring in the orchard, balanced use of fertilizers, water management, proper training and pruning, improved cultural practices,augementation and conservation of parasitoids and predators and need based application of selective insecticides.The various strategies for successful management of economically important pests of temperate fruits are thoroughly discussed.

Cereal crops are interchangeably called grain crops. In many publications and correspondence, they are simply called grains or cereals. As of 2012, the top 5 cereals in the world ranked on the basis of production tonnage are rice (paddy), wheat, maize (corn), barley and sorghum. These crops are also among the top 50 agricultural commodities in the world with maize ranking second next to sugarcane. Rice (paddy) ranks third, wheat - 4th, barley - 12^th, and sorghum - 30^th. Another cereal, millet, ranks no. 42 (FAO Stat 2014, updated Aug. 18, 2014). According to Chapman and Carter (1976), “a cereal is generally defined as a grass grown for its small, edible seed.” They also explained that all cereals are angiosperms, monocots, and members of the grass family Gramineae. Similarly, Lantican (2001) defines cereal or grain crops as agronomic crops belonging to the grass family Gramineae or Poaceae which are utilized as staples; the word “cereal” is derived from the most important grain deity, the Roman Goddess Ceres. Among the food grains cereals occupies for most status in human food requirements. Cereals are grown under different agro-climatic (Upland, Low land & Rainfed) conditions and it is most important staple food of about 65% of Indian population. Cereals crop is attacked by a large number of insect pests right from initial to till the harvest of the crops. Brief descriptions of the major crops, major insect pest and appropriate control measures are given below:

1.    Breeding Systems Utilized in Production of Vegetable Hybrids
    
2.    Male Sterility-Theory
    
3.    Hybrid Seed Production in Chilli Using GMS
    
4.    Hybrid Seed Production in Muskmelon Using GMS
    
5.    Cytoplasmic Genetic Male Sterility
    
6.    Hybrid Seed Production in Onion Using CMS
    
7.    Hybrid Seed Production in Hot Pepper Using CMS
    
8.    Self-Incompatibility Systems
    
9.    Types of Incompatibility
    
10.    Hybrid Cultivars in Cauliflower and Cabbage
    
11.    Male Sterility in Tomato and its Uses in Hybrid Seed Production
        
References

• Introduction
• Characteristics of Management Information System
• Management Information Systems Advantage
• Outputs of a Management Information System

Abstract

Soil acidity poses a great problem for crop production due to very poor fertility status and nutrient imbalances in eastern and north eastern region and hence, it needs a special attention to address such acidity problems in relation to crop production. The integrated nutrient management system for the maintenance of soil fertility, sustainable agricultural productivity and improving profitability through the judicious and efficient use of mineral fertilizers especially secondary and micronutrients, organic matters, green manures, bio-fertilizers in acid soils. Rainwater harvesting, efficient storage of excess rainwater and subsequent uses as supplemental irrigation especially in the areas of rainfed situations as well as selection of crops and cropping systems in different acid soils region need to be developed. The management of secondary and micronutrients in acid soils can be made either by the addition of cost-effective lime or liming materials to counteract the abnormalities of soils by raising pH as the first step and subsequently by modifying agricultural practices and applying balanced fertilizers including limiting nutrients viz. S, B, Mo and Zn at optimal levels based on soil test values for maximum crop production.

Heat or thermal stress occurs when it becomes increasingly difficult for dairy cow to maintain a normal core body temperature of 101.5 to 102.8° F (rectal temp.). The thermo neutral or comfort zone (TNZ) for cow is at an environmental temperature of 41 to 77° F. Within the TNZ, heat production from normal metabolic functions is about equal to the heat loss from the body and maintaining a normal body temperature is relatively easy. Extent of heat stress can be measured by the Temperature Humidity Index (THI). A THI level above 75 is considered stressful for dairy animals. Two sources of heat impact the cow as the environmental temperature and the heat produced internally from basal nutrient metabolism. Heat produced from nutrient metabolism is a lesser factor than environmental heat sources. However, as milk production and feed intake increase, more heat from nutrient metabolism is produced aggravating any heat stress being incurred from environmental sources. Therefore, higher milk producing cow will be more affected by heat stress than low milk producing or dry cow. 

A typical repeat breeder cow or buffalo is an apparently normal cycling cow / buffalo with normal genitalia which has failed to settle to services or inseminations during three or more consecutive estrus periods. These animals can neither be considered as sterile nor can settle to subsequent services.  Age of the repeat breeder should not have exceeded beyond 12 years.

The causative factors for repeat breeder animals fall in two main categories as failure of fertilization and early embryonic death.

Introduction

The area under salt-affected soils in India is estimated to be 6.73 Mha spread over a number of states across the country. This 6.73 million ha are lying barren or produce very uneconomical yields of crops due to excessive accumulation of salts. These soils are agriculturally unproductive because of the high content of soluble salts which had harmful effects on plant growth due to moisture stress and toxicity/deficiency of some of the ions and the exchangeable sodium ions in clay complex lead to the unfavorable physical conditions of for the plant growth and water movement (Bhumla 1977). Saline and sodic soils have excess concentration of either soluble or exchangeable sodium, calcium and magnesium primarily in the form of chlorides and sulphates. Salt affected areas an expected to increase with spread of waterlogging and salinity due to increase in canal irrigation, and intensive exploitation of poor quality ground waters for agriculture in non canal commands. Certain states like Rajasthan and Haryana located in the western part of the country are endowed with 84 and 62% of poor quality ground waters, respectively. Continuous use of such waters for irrigation to agricultural crops is bound to increase the problem of salinity and sodicity in India (Yadav 1989; Minhas and Bajwa 2001). Introduction of irrigation without making proper provision for drainage is the major cause for the development of salinity in canal commands.It is severe on irrigated lands of the dry zone. It reduces crop yield and in severe cases causes complete abandonment of agriculture (Joshi and Dhir 1989; Joshi et al. 2000; Mahesh Kumar et al. 2016). The present paper deals with extent, causes, characteristics and management options of these soils for sustainability of agriculture in the area.

Introduction

Climate is the primary determinant of agricultural productivity. Plant systems, and hence crop yields, are influenced by many environmental factors such as moisture and temperature, may act either synergistically or antagonistically with other factors in determining yields (Waggoner, 1983). In the recent years, climatic change/variability is a biggest challenging factor that affects agriculture in India and elsewhere and concern has been expressed by world community regarding the potential effects of climate change on agricultural productivity. Climate change is expected to influence crop production, hydrologic balances, input supplies and other components of agricultural systems. Agricultural systems are managed ecosystems. The climate change induced atmospheric stress will be the primary cause of crop loss worldwide, reducing average yields for most major crop plants. Environmental stresses such as erratic and insufficient rainfall, extreme temperatures, salinity, alkalinity, acidity, heavy metal toxicity, oxidative stress and others limit yield and productivity of many cultivated crop plants. Drought, extreme temperatures and oxidative stress are interconnected and affect the water relations of a plant on the cellular as well as whole plant level causing specific as well as unspecific reactions (Beck et al., 2007). This leads to a series of morphological, physiological, biochemical and molecular changes that adversely affect plant growth and productivity (Wang et al., 2001).

1.    Marketing Scenario of Fruits and Vegetables
    
2.    Marketing Systems of Fruits and Vegetables
    
3.    Vertical Coordination in Food Chain
    
4.    Supply Chain Management
    
5.    Post Harvest Management
        
References

1. Introduction

Osmotic dehydration is a useful treatment of dehydration compared to the other dehydration processes, as other dehydration processes bring adverse and irreversible changes in physical and nutritional status of food material. Recently in many studies it was found out that since plant membranes are semi-permeable in nature, not only moisture but transfer of solute from osmotic solution to the food material also takes place. Another kind of transfer which was also noticed is the leaching of micronutrients from the cells of food to the osmotic solution, but the amount being very low, this transfer can be neglected. (Mayor et al., 2006). The mass transfer kinetics was studied for different food materials (Hawkes and Flink, 1978). Effect of different variables such as pressure and temperature were also studied (Rastogi and Niranjan, 1998). The effective diffusivities for both water loss and solute gain can be calculated by using various methods which gives the rate of diffusion of solute and moisture for the food material. The finding of solute gain and leaching of micronutrients pointed the requirement of maintaining the osmotic dehydration process, which could be done by maintaining the process variables of osmotic dehydration. Impact of various process variables on osmotic dehydration and their best levels at which maximum water loss and minimum solute gain could be obtained had to be calculated out. For this purpose, optimization of process variables through response surface methodology (RSM) could be best utilized (Uddin et al. , 2004). RSM is a statistical tool which gives the random combinations of input variables to give the best output result as required. Various works have been done on optimization of process conditions of osmotic dehydration taking different samples of foods. In this study, bamboo shoot species (Bambusa balcooa) was taken as sample for osmotic dehydration to optimize the process variables for osmotic dehydration of bamboo shoots using salt as osmotic agent followed by calculation of effective diffusivity of water and solute during osmotic dehydration of bamboo shoot.

Fruit Flies and Economic Importance

Fruit flies belong to order Diptera (true flies) with one of the largest, most diversified and fascinating acalypterate family Tephritidae. These are commonly called as fruit flies due to their close association with fruits and vegetables and are also known as peacock flies because of their habit of strutting about and vibrating spotted and striped wings. Of the 4500 known species of fruit flies worldwide, nearly 200 are considered as pests but 70 species are regarded as agriculturally important throughout the world (Clarke et al., 2005, Schutz et al., 2012). David and Ramani (2011) reported 325 species in the Indian subcontinent of which 243 in 79 genera are from India alone. Important fruits flies damaging fruit crops in India include Oriental fruit fly or mango fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel); peach fruit fly, B. zonata (Saunders); guava fruit fly, 
B. correcta (Bezzi); melon fly, B. cucurbitae (Coquillett) and ber fruit fly, Carpomyia vesuviana Costa, whereas important fruit flies in Punjab include B. dorsalis and B. zonata. Important host plants of B. dorsalis are mango, guava, peach, citrus, pear, ber and loquat but most preferred host of B. dorsalis is guava while that of B. zonata are guava, peach, mango, pear, ber, citrus and loquat but C. vesuviana infests only ber (Mann 1990, Sharma et al., 2005, Singh 2008b, Singh 2012, Singh et al., 2014a,b and Singh et al., 2015). Bactrocera dorsalis is considered to be the most damaging and aggressive fruit flies in the world (Leblance and Putao 2000). They are strong fliers and can fly upto two kilometers in search of food (Butani 1979).

The usage of different pure chemicals and their combinations in treating various disorders of the livestock has been listed in this chapter.

1. Introduction

Law of conservation of mass says that material cannot be created nor destroyed, which is the basic fundamentals of physical science. Many engineering analyses involve material balances. These balances are simply accounting processes that account for all material in processes of interest. The material balance is one of the most useful tools fundamental in the “engineering approach” to design new process. The law of conservation of mass tells that the total mass of all material entering any process must equal the total mass of materials leaving plus the mass of any material accumulated in the process.

Laboratory investigation of the samples assist in diagnosing, confirming the cases including veterolegal cases. The type of material, quantity of specimens & preservatives used and the method of dispatch to the laboratory  is tabulated in this chapter.