eChapters

INTRODUCTION

China aster is one of the most popular annual flowering plant grown throughout the world. Among annuals it ranks next to chrysanthemum and marigold and is grown mainly by marginal and small farmers. It can easily be grown in the open fields and lath houses for the roduction of cut flowers Cut asters last long and are used in vases and floral decoration. When asters are grown in large mass, they make very showy bedding plants and are valuable for filling up the gap in mixed herbaceous border. The dwarf types are put in front and the taller behind.

Some strains are used as pot plants, while dwarf cultivars are suitable for edging and window boxes. The prominent colours of flowers are blue, violet, lavender, rose, white, etc. In tropical and subtropical countries aster is extensively grown for bedding and cut blooms during winter month and spring. China aster is one of the most important traditional flowers in India and has maximum use for traditional purposes. The commercial importance of China aster is increasing in India especially in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Maharashtra.

Bone

Bones provide the rigid framework of the body of animals and man. The skeletal system serves three main functions. (1) It supports and protects the soft tissues and organs of the body. (2) It helps to maintain, through homeostatic regulation, the constancy of the ionic environment within the organism. (3) It helps in locomotion with the help of muscles and tendons.

The ends of long bone is called the epiphysis: the long, compact shaft, the diaphysis where it joins the epiphysis, the metaphysis. The diaphysis is composed of a hollow cylinder which contained the medullary cavity and bone marrow. During postnatal life, erythropoiesis occurs mainly in the bone marrow. In the adult, bone contains on wet weight basis approximately 25% water, 45 Percent ash and 30 percent organic matter. With increasing age, the ash content progressively increases as the water content decreases; the organic fraction remains relatively constant. Calcium constitutes about 37% of the ash content, and phosphorus about 18.5%.

Introduction

Plant genetic resources represent a huge reservoir of genes of economic importance, which acts as buffer against environment fluctuations. These genes are largely spread in the land races and traditional cultivars, which have been conserved by virtue of their specific merits. The human and natural selection interventions have resulted in establishment, improvement and differentiation of numerous types, which represent genetic wealth of the crop species and are commonly referred as plant genetic resources (PGR).

Genetic Erosion and Need for Conservation

In view of the availability of high yielding varieties/hybrids, the traditional cultivars/ land races have been disregarded by the farmers due to their low economic potential. Sustaining the green revolution, changing cultivation practices and intensification of land use pattern have been the potential threats for rapid erosion of plant genetic diversity. The erosion of these resources has resulted into the extinction of several valuable genetic materials. Realizing the consequences of genetic erosion and importance of plant genetic resources, more diversity needs to be conserved for future. Prior to conservation the collection and characterization of germplasm through morphological and molecular markers for establishing the identity of genotype is essentially required. For effective utilization of PGR in vegetable improvement programme, the proper characterization and evaluation of genotypes for breeder driven traits including biotic and abiotic stresses in target environments is urgently needed. In addition, value addition is an important area of concern especially in vegetable crops. After implementation of recommendations of Convention on Biodiversity (CBD), the major thrust has been given on conservation of bio-resources. In view of the globalization and emerging IPR regimes (UPOV, TRIPS, ITPGFRA etc.), there is a need for having suitable mechanisms for the protection of bio-resources.

1 Deficiency of which of the following trace minerals leads to parakeratosis of skin in pigs

a) Zinc b) Copper

c) Cobalt d) Iron

Modern Semen Evaluation Methods

1. Fluorescent Microscopic Evaluation
2. In-vitro Fertility Test
3. Enzyme Estimation

1. Fluorescent Microscopic Evaluation

1.1. Acrosomal Integrity (Giemsa method and FITC-PSA assay)

The acrosomal integrity of the spermatozoa was detected using Fluorescence isothiocyanate – Pisum sativum agglutinin (FITC-PSA) staining procedure adopting method of Mendoza et al. (1992). Pisum sativum agglutinin (PSA) when conjugated to Lectin FITC marks the intact acrosome with bright green fluorescence. PSA is an agglutinin from edible pea that binds to glycoconjugates of acrosomal matrix or outer acrosomal membrane. It has affinity for terminal α –D-glucosyl and α-D-mannosyl residues of glycoproteins and it binds specifically to sugar α-mannoside found in acrosomal content.

The quest for drugs from the sea has yielded a remarkable di versity of natural products mostly from invertebrates such as sponges, tunicates, bryozoans etc. These molecules are either in late stages of clinical trials or have already entered the market. There has been an increased emphasis on marine microorganisms as sources of bioactive compounds over the past decade. Marine bacteria alone constitute 10% of the total living biomass carbon of the Earth’s biosphere and they have unique metabolic and physiological capabilities to ensure their survival in diverse habitats. In the marine environment, some microorganisms associate with living and non-living surfaces and the competition amongst these microbes for space and nutrients leads to the production of bioactive secondary metabolites.

Domestic animals including chicken and mammals, belong to the category of homeotherms, as opposed to poikilotherms. Homeotherms or warm blooded animals are those which are able to maintain constant body temperature in the face of varying environmental temperature. The poikilotherms or the cold blooded animals change their body temperature according to the temperature of the surroundings. Most invertebrates and lower vertebrates belong to the category of poikilotherms.

Why do animals have to maintain constant body temperature? As we are aware that enzymatic reactions in the body are temperature sensitive. In fact, a 10 degree centigrade increase in temperature can result in doubling of the reaction rates. In order to maintain optimum functioning of the enzymatic reactions in the body a constant temperature is required. This constant body temperature is not very constant in the sense that it varies somewhat during exercise and also when the animal is exposed to extremes of temperature of the surroundings. That means that the temperature regulation mechanisms in the body are not 100 percent perfect.

At this stage it is desirable to clarify the distinction between surface temperature and core temperature. The surface temperature, in contrast to the core temperature rises and falls with the temperature of the surroundings. It is the temperature of the deep tissues or internal organs which remains constant. The temperature of the rectum is usually taken as a useful indicator of core temperature because of the ease of measurement. The rectal temperature of several domestic animals is given in Table 1.

1 Goose stepping gait is observed due to deficiency of

a) Biotin b) Pyrodoxin

c) Pantothenic acid d) Niacian

Grass and Forage Crops
Grassland can be divided into natural grassland and cultivated grassland. Natural pastureland includes rough and hilly grazing land. Grasses, legumes and herbs are examples of natural grassland. Cultivated grassland can be divided into temporary grassland and permanent grassland.
Chemical composition of grassland
Dry matter: The composition of the dry matter is dependent on the relative proportions of cell walls and cell contents. In very young grasses its moisture content is 75-85% while in mature material its moisture is around 60%.
Crude protein: Proteins represent the nitrogenous substances found in herbage, with true protein constituting approximately 80 percent of the total nitrogen content. While the overall protein concentration diminishes as the plant matures, the relative distribution of amino acids remains relatively stable. Additionally, the amino acid profiles of proteins show minimal variation across different grass species. Approximately half of the cellular protein in grasses is comprised of a single enzyme, ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase, which is crucial for the photosynthetic process of carbon dioxide fixation. The average crude protein content ranges from about 3% in very mature herbage to as high as 30% in young, heavily fertilized grass. In mature herbage, a considerable portion of the protein may be indigestible due to its association with fiber, specifically in the form of acid detergent insoluble nitrogen (ADIN). Grass proteins are notably abundant in the amino acid arginine and also contain significant levels of glutamic acid and lysine. They exhibit a higher biological value for growth compared to seed proteins. Methionine is identified as the first limiting amino acid, followed by isoleucine, which is not utilized by ruminants. The rumen displays a rumen degradable protein (RDP) level of 80-90%. The primary constituents of non-protein nitrogen (NPN) include amino acids, amides, and nitrates. In the rumen, excessive nitrates (-NO3)
are converted into nitrites (-NO2), which subsequently lead to the conversion of ferrous ions to ferric ions (methaemoglobin), rendering them incapable of transporting oxygen.

Introduction
 
Biodiversity a term to describe variability between organisms or populations of organisms, has different facets depending on the level of diversity considered (Species, population, ecosystem) or the organisms concerned (Barbault, 1992). Biodiversity can be exploited in many ways at scientific levels, the best known and the most ancient no doubt being in taxonomy and systematics, and more recently for studies of population biology, evolution and conservation of ecosystems, or for selection of materials for biotechnology.

Interest Rate: Provisional Interest rate @ 15.75% p.a. has been taken for evaluation of the project report. However, the exact interest rate will be decided by the sanctioning authority on the date of sanction.

Disbursement of loan: Funds for fodder cultivation and civil construction should be disbursed first. Development of sheds and fodder plots should be completed within 3 months from first disbursement. Then disbursement of 1^st Batch cow (10 animals) will be done. Last disbursement for 2^nd Batch cows (10 animals) should be done after 5-6 months of purchase of 1^st batch cows.

Insurance: The animals and other assets (sheds, equipment) must be insured. Wherever necessary, Risk / Mortality fund may be considered in lieu of dairy insurance.

Goat anatomy

Understanding of the basic structure and functioning of goats is required to maintain the health and productivity of goats. Anatomy deals with the form and structure of the animal whereas physiology deals with the mechanism of body functions.

The skeleton of goat is made up of the vertebral column, ribs and skull, the limbs, and the joints. There are 7 neck (cervical) vertebrae, 13 chest (thoracic) vertebrae, 6 or 7 lumbar vertebrae, 4 pelvic (sacral) vertebrae and between 4 and 8 tail (coccygeal) vertebrae.The ribs are elongated, curved bones that form the ribcage, which is the skeleton of the thoracic cavity (chest). There are 13 pairs of ribs attached to each side of the thoracic vertebrae. Most of them are fixed i.e. they are joined to the sternum (breastbone) at the front of the chest but the last two pairs are not attached at the front and are called floating ribs.The skull includes all the bones of the head. It consists of a number of flat bones that form immovable joints, most of which disappear with age; and a lower jaw bone (mandible), which forms movable joints with the other parts of the skull.The limbs include forelegs (thoracic limbs) and hindlegs (pelvic limbs). The forelegs consist of shoulder,forearm and a lower limb made up of carpus,metacarpus and phalanges. The hind legs consist of pelvic girdle, thigh, and a lower limb made up of tarsus, metatarsus and phalanges.

The joints are where two or more bones of cartilages meet. There are two main kinds of joints.Fixed or immovable joints have no joint cavity and are united by fibrous tissue or cartilage. Many of these are temporary joints which become fixed as calcium accumulates in the flexible tissues and turns to bone (calcifies) with age. Examples are the joints in theskull, the joints of ribs to vertebrae, and the pelvic and mandibular symphyses (midline joints).Movable joints have a joint cavity surrounded by ajoint capsule. There are two opposing bone surfaces,which have smooth surfaces of very dense bone.

Movable joints have cartilages between the bones to reduce friction and absorb concussion. The inner lining of the joint capsule is the synovial layer, which produces synovial fluid (joint fluid). Examples include joints of the limbs, such as the shoulder and the hip, and the joint between the skull and the vertebral column.

Our general environment is loaded with tiny invisible living things that influence us consistently. Microbiology is a specialized area of science that deals with living things typicallytoo little to be seen without magnification. Suchmicroscopic life forms are collectively referred to as microorganisms. Microbial kingdom incorporates the study of bacteria, rickettsiae, viruses, fungi, algae and protozo a. Virology the study of viruses, mycology study of fungi and protozoology deals with protozoa.Credit for prologue to microbial world goes to ‘Antony van Leeuwenhoek’ and to vistas of microbial activities to ‘Louis Pasteur’ and ‘Robert Koch’. This period is reffered as the “Golden Era” of microbiology on account of the significant discoveries viz: microbial fermentations, discovery of various disease-causing agents, microbes’ cultivations, differences in metabolic activities, development of attenuated strains and their use as immunoprophylactic agents. The techniques used to study bacteria and different microorganisms embody direct microscopic examination, cultivation, biochemical tests, animal inoculation, serological reactivity and recent molecular biological techniques.Definitive evidence for the cause of a given infection is established by Koch that are still used to this day to definitively prove that a microorganism causes a particular disease. Koch’s four postulates are:

1 The system that is most susceptible to hypoxia is

a) Respiratory System b) Cardiovascular System

c) Nervous system d) Digestive system

Heart failure is a common progressive and complex clinical syndrome with high morbidity and mortality in humans. It is mostly due to cardiac involvement. Clinical signs and symptoms developed in heart failure cases are the manifestations of body’s compensatory efforts to meet chronic inadequate cardiac output as seen in other species of animals also.

Pump is a mechanical device to increase the pressure energy of fluid. Aquacultural enterprises often find it necessary to move fluid against an energy gradient. Most commo n may be filling or emptying of tanks. For performing an assigned job, the best selection of pumps should be such that it should work at its peak efficiency. Unfortunately, there is only one head and discharge condition for each pump where the peak efficiency is obtained and therefore, it is rarely possible to achieve the highest efficiency for a pumping condition. Manufacturers cannot design and build so many varieties of pumps to meet all operating conditions. They have therefore, settled upon some standard designs which are generally required for most of the head and discharge conditions.

Discrete Cell Tumours

(Round / discrete / distinctive / unique cell tumours)

General Features

• Exfoliate many cells
• Cells often quite small to medium sized
• Discrete cells
• Do not stick together
• If the smear is very cellular, cells are packed close together in sheets
• However, these cells are not adherent to one another
• There are sharp, crisp cytoplasmic margins between cells

Introduction
Special milks, a dynamic segment of the dairy industry, cater to diverse consumer needs through products like flavored milk drinks, lactose-reduced or lactosefree milk, micronutrient-fortified milk (e.g., vitamin- or iron-enriched), and protein-enhanced milk. This segment is experiencing significant growth, driven by health-conscious consumers, increasing lactose intolerance awareness, and demand for functional and fortified foods. Globally, the market for fortified and specialty milks is projected to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of over 6% by 2030. While flavored milks dominate in terms of appeal to younger demographics, fortified milks, particularly those enriched with vitamin D and calcium, cater to aging populations and health-conscious individuals. The economics of special milks are appealing for producers, with higher price premiums compared to regular milk. Niche areas, such as proteinenriched milk for athletes, lactose free milks for lactose intolerant persons, and low-sugar variants for diabetics, are gaining traction, reflecting evolving consumer preferences for tailored nutrition. This sector’s growth underscores a shift toward personalization in the dairy market, supported by innovations in processing and packaging to retain nutritional quality and extend shelf life.
Flavored Milks
Milk drinks are products ready for consumption, made from milk with differing fat contents and additions such as sugar, cocoa, fruit concentrates, coffee, flavors and/or other food ingredients, which are homogeneously mixed and contribute to flavor and taste. Flavored milks of various types are manufactured on the basis of whole milk, fat-reduced milk or skim milk (<0.5% fat). They are marketed in the form of pasteurized, UHT or sterilized products. These beverages promote milk consumption by offering a flavorful alternative to plain milk, especially for those who are reluctant to drink regular milk. Studies showed that providing flavored milk in schools significantly boosts milk intake, thereby enhancing the consumption of essential nutrients like calcium, protein, and vitamins among children.

The transformation of global agriculture, especially in the context of liberalized markets and increasing corporate involvement, has placed contract farming at the forefront of rural development discourse. Over the past few decades, contract farming has emerged as a strategic approach to address key challenges faced by smallholder farmers, including market uncertainty, lack of inputs and limited access to extension services. Particularly in the post-World Trade Organization (WTO) era, developing nations have witnessed a surge in contract farming initiatives due to their potential to ensure a consistent supply of high-quality produce, stabilize farmers’ incomes and integrate stallholders into the commercial agri-food economy. The appeal of contract farming lies in its dual benefits. For agribusiness firms, it reduces procurement risks and ensures better control over quality and production processes. For farmers, it offers pre-agreed pricing, input support and reliable market access, thereby mitigating the common risks associated with price volatility, resource scarcity and technical gaps. However, for contract farming to function effectively and deliver on its promises, certain preconditions must be met. A profitable market is the foremost requirement, as sponsors will only invest in regions where long-term returns are feasible. The physical and social environment must also be conducive to agricultural productivity and farmer cooperation. This includes factors such as geography, soil fertility, access to irrigation, infrastructure quality (roads, communication, electricity), land availability and cultural compatibility between the stakeholders. Government support is another critical pillar, encompassing both legal backing to enforce contracts and policy incentives that promote investment and risk-sharing. Furthermore, well-designed contract specifications-covering pricing structures, input provisions, managerial responsibilities and land-use terms-are essential to ensure transparency, enforceability and mutual trust. Despite its transformative potential, contract farming is not a one-size-fits-all solution. Its success hinges on a careful alignment of stakeholders’ interests, contextual understanding and supportive institutional frameworks. The

Introduction

Foraminifera or forams for short are the most abundant, diverse and widely distributed Protists in marine realm. They are found in all marine environments, from the inter-tidal to the deepest ocean trenches, and from the tropics to the poles (Todo et al., 2005). In some places, foraminifera are so abundant that the sediment on the bottom is mostly made up of their shells. For example, tourists from all over the world get attracted to the pink sands of Bermuda. These sands get their colour from the shells of Homotrema rubrum which has pink to red-colored shells. Living representatives of foraminifera provide ecological data and their mineralized tests are a geochemical record of palaeoclimatic conditions.