eChapters

Introduction

Agriculture is India is mostly production oriented restricted in huge number of uneven small holdings and plays a key role in the Indian economy. Cultivation of fruits and vegetables has emerged as profitable venture and it is not only providing nutritional security but also provides a substantial employment to rural people as well as open the door for export. India is the second largest producer of vegetables, next only to China, in the world with a production of 40 million tonnes from four million hectares of land area. In India, vegetables are grown in an area 1, 10, 65 thousand hectares with the production of 1, 99,882 thousand metric tonnes. Uttar Pradesh is the largest producer of vegetable production in the country (14.80 %) followed by West Bengal (14.12 %), Madhya Pradesh (10.30%), Bihar (8.88 %), Maharashtra (8.39 %), Gujarat (7.84 %), Odisha (4.76 %) and Karnataka (4.05 %) (NHB, 2021).

Goat (Capra hircus) is a domesticated species of goat-antelope typically kept as livestock. It was domesticated from the wild goat (C. aegagrus) of Southwest Asia and Eastern Europe. It is one of the oldest domesticated species of animal, according to archaeological evidence that its earliest domestication occurred in Iran at 10,000 calibrated calendar years ago. Beginning approximately 10,000 years ago, Neolithic farmers in the Near East started keeping small herds of goats for both their meat and milk, as well as for clothing and building with the hair, bone, skin and power. Undoubtedly, goat farming at the time was natural resource based and is organic in nature. Mechanical (1880–1930) and chemical (1920–1950) revolutions in agriculture, significantly influenced the modern day livestock farming predominately in non-organic form. Biological advances in the genetically modified organisms in the 70s further complicated the researcher–producer–consumer dynamics. As of today, there are over 750 million goats scattered throughout the world. Goats are found in nearly every country on the planet and in nearly every climate, each one with a different purpose. There are more than a thousand adapted breeds in existence. Goats have been used for milk, meat, fur, and skins across much of the world.

Tree leaves serve as a traditional source of roughage for livestock such as sheep, goats, cattle, and buffaloes. During the initial growth phases, these leaves exhibit a relatively high crude protein percentage alongside lower fiber content. However, as the tree matures, there is a notable decline in protein levels and a corresponding increase in crude fiber content. Generally, tree leaves are abundant in Ca, often containing two to three times the amount found in cultivated fodder, but they are deficient in phosphorus, leading to an imbalanced Ca to P ratio. The presence of tannic acid further reduces the digestibility of the protein found in these leaves. The dry matter content of most tree leaves typically falls within the range of 30-40%, accompanied by a significant protein concentration. Although the crude fiber percentage in tree leaves is lower than that in grasses and hays, their digestibility remains poor due to the tannic acid content. Additionally, while the ether extract in tree leaves is relatively high, it is often less digestible compared to that found in cultivated fodder.
Leguminous trees and shrubs
Animals that graze on mature grass pastures frequently enhance their diet by consuming the leaves of trees and shrubs, many of which belong to the legume family. The term ‘browse’ refers to the food obtained in this manner; in addition to being consumed directly by animals, browse can also be harvested and transported to livestock kept in enclosures. The leaves of leguminous trees are notably rich in protein (200 300 g/kg DM) and minerals, although they also contain a significant amount of fiber (50 60% neutral-detergent fiber/DM). The presence of tannins and potentially other compounds can reduce the palatability of browse, suggesting that its nutritional value may serve as a reserve food source for times when grass is no longer accessible. A prominent example of a browse species is leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala), commonly referred to as ipil-ipil, which is an important tropical legume widely cultivated across various regions. It serves as a significant source of protein and minerals and is abundant in β-carotene. However, it also contains the toxic amino acid
mimosine. Other notable leguminous forages include Gliricidia (Gliricidia sepium), Sesbania (Sesbania sesban) and Acacia (Acacia angustissima).

Pomegranate  (Punica granatum L.)  also  known as anar, dalim  is   an ancient  fruit and cultivated in semi-arid to arid regions of the country. However, pomegranate plants are found throughout the country from temperate to tropical climate. It has enjoyed a reputation for its healthy dietetic and medicinal properties. Pomegranate has versatile adaptability, drought tolerance, high value fruits, steady and high yields of the crop (Vishalnath et al., 2007). The pomegranate fruit has therapeutic value (Julie Jurenka, 2008); good keeping quality, high export potential and is mainly grown for table purpose, though several value added products are also available.

Meat is animal flesh that is used as food. Most often, this means the skeletal muscle and associated fat, but it may also describe other edible tissues such as organs, liver, brain, bone marrow, kidney, or lung. Meat is a nutrient dense food. Meat contains protein, fat, enzymes, vitamins and minerals for proper human nutrition. Goats are important producer of meat besides milk, fiber and skin. Goat meat is lower in calories, total fat, saturated fat and cholesterol, than traditional meats.Goat have number of characteristics , such as high reproductive potential , short generation interval , ability to thrive on shrubs, bushes and tree leaves, high digestive efficiency for cellulose and less susceptibility to infectious diseases, that make them suitable as meat producing livestock. Since these animals are more concentrated in the developing part of the world, they play a major role in subsistence agriculture of developing economies of poor and marginal farmers inhabiting such countries. More than 95 % of goats are concentrated in dry tropical and subtropical areas of poor agricultural potential and even on marginal lands of the world (Morand Fehr and Boyazoglu, 1999). Goat has several other advantages as producer of meat which make it predominant and preferred animal for meat production. Often because of the above mentioned reason, goat meat is sold two to three times costlier as compared to pork in India. Beef is unavailable in India with the exception of Kerala and West Bengal. Goat meat has an edge over mutton too, as the number of goats slaughtered for meat purposes (40%) far exceeds the number of sheep slaughtered for similar purposes. The slaughter rate of goat is at the level of 39.7 % as compared to 31.8% for sheep and 11% for buffaloes, respectively. Sheep and goat meat are both called “mutton” in India. Goats convert the poor quality roughage, browse tree leaves, which would have otherwise gone waste, into valuable source of protein in several desert or hostile areas of the world where other classes of livestock like cattle and buffalo will starve to death. Goat meat production and consumption has an important place in the economy of Asian and African countries. Goats have been recognized as an important source of meat in the rural areas of these countries. Commercial meat-goat enterprises account for majority of the meat-goat production systems and herd sizes range from five to several thousand does. Prolificacy, milk production and pre-weaning growth are important in achieving good productivity of commercial meat production enterprises.

Preservation means just protect the foods against the spoilage, but scientifically it may be defined as a science which deals with the process for prevention of decay or spoilage of the food is called preservation.

In other words, just controlling the physical, chemical or microbial changes in the foods is called preservation.

Physical Changes: Colour, flavour, texture and taste etc.

Chemical Changes: Carbohydrate, fats, proteins, vitamins and minerals.

Microbial Changes: Mould, yeasts and bacteria

1 Hepatosis dietetica in swine is caused by

a) Deficiency of vitamin-E & Se

b) Feeding of high energy diet

c) Excess of unsaturated fatty acid in the diet

d) Deficiency of vitamin A

Agriculture is an important factor for human civilization as it not only provides food, feed for the livestock, fibre, fuel and industrial raw material but also supports the livelihood of a wide range of world population. Besides, it shows its prominent presence in the economy of the developing countries. Being a developing country, agriculture is the largest sector in India where about 54% of the population is engaged. The growth of agriculture in India during last seven and half decades (after independence) is quite remarkable in terms of sufficient food-grains production as well as in achieving self-sufficiency in food production. The task to achieve it was not so easy.

Introduction

“If agriculture goes wrong, nothing else will have a chance to go right in the country”,these words by Dr MS Swaminathan known as the ‘Father of Green Revolution’ in India, itself highlights the importance of agriculture and its allied sectors in Indian economy. India is an agrarian nation with about 140 million farmers and net sown area equals to 42.4% of the total geographical area. Its agriculture sector has always played and will continue to play a major role in its economic growth. As per the First Advance Estimates of National Income, 2021-22 released by National Statistical Office (NSO), Ministry of Statistics & ProgrammeImplementation, the contribution of agriculture and its allied sectors stand at approximately 18.8 % of India’s Gross Value Added (GVA) at current prices during 2021-22, depicting a growth of 3.9%.In addition, agriculture is also the largest employment generating sector in India as approximately 55% of the total workforce is engaged in agriculture and its allied sector activities. It is the main source of income security of rural households in India. Since ancient times, agriculture and livestock keeping are complementary professions that rural households have undertaken for their survival.

4.1 Introduction

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is a major food security crop in South Asia, with 42% of the wheat in this region grown following rice (Oryza sativa L.) on 13.5 million hectares of land. Resource-conserving technologies offer considerable potential for improving the sustainability and productivity of wheat in the rice-wheat system of South Asia. These include raising input use efficiency, cutting costs, providing various environmental benefits, and ultimately improving farmer livelihoods and helping to reduce poverty.

Introduction

Strategy in the global context requires a thorough understanding of the external environment, including economic, political, cultural, and technological factors that could impact an organization's operations. Organizations must also understand their internal strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats to develop effective strategies that align with their goals. A global strategy involves developing a standardized approach to business activities that can be applied across different countries and cultures, while also adapting to local Market Conditions. Companies that operate globally must consider the differences in legal and regulatory environments, cultural norms, and consumer preferences when developing their strategies. Global strategy requires collaboration across different regions and functions within an organization to achieve a shared vision and common goals. The use of technology and data analytics is crucial in developing and executing global strategies, as it can help organizations identify new market opportunities, monitor changes in the external environment, and make informed decisions. Companies achieving success in formulating and executing global strategies must demonstrate agility and rapid adaptability to external environmental shifts. Additionally, they should maintain a steadfast commitment to continuous improvement and innovation to maintain a competitive edge.

Objectives of Seed Grading

Minimization of heterogeneity to the lowest level and enhancement of the homogeneity to the highest level in the seed lots received by the processing unit.

Principle

Separation of seed lots based on differences in the physical properties of the seeds.

Post harvest activities include threshing/ seed extraction, drying, pre-cleaning and conditioning, cleaning, fine-cleaning or grading, seed treatment, weighing and bagging/ packaging, sealing and labelling, storing, and transportation for marketing. Except for transportation and marketing, all these activities collectively known as seed processing. However, for most of the crop, threshing or seed extraction, basic cleaning even drying is done in the farm itself and in the processing unit, the threshed seed is received.

The objective of the seed processing is to prepare the harvested seed in such a way that seed of highest purity and quality would be available for marketing, also for planting. The cleaning and the grading are the foremost activity of the seed processing. The seed, which is received in the processing unit, contains many undesirable particles, which as such cannot be used for marketing, hence cleaning and grading become necessary.

Introduction

Disorders of the hemopoietic system in poultry can significantly impact the health and productivity of these birds. The hemopoietic system is responsible for the production of blood cells, including red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Disorders within this system can lead to various health issues, including anemia, immunodeficiency, and impaired blood clotting. Some of the common disorders of hemopoietic system include:

1. Anemia: Anemia is a condition characterized by a decrease in the number of red blood cells or hemoglobin in the blood. In poultry, anemia can be caused by various factors, including nutritional deficiencies (such as iron deficiency), infectious diseases (such as avian malaria or chicken infectious anemia), and parasitic infestations (such as blood-sucking parasites like leucocytozooncaulleryi, ticks, lice and mites).

2. Avian Leukosis:Avian leucosis is a viral disease caused by avian leukosis virus (ALV). It primarily affects young birds, causing tumors in various organs, including the spleen, liver, and bursa of Fabricius. Avian leukosis can lead to immunosuppression, anemia, and increased susceptibility to secondary infections. The avian leucosis diseases include lymphoid leucosis (affecting lymphoid cells), myeloid leucosis (affecting myeloid cells), osteoptrosis, etc. and can result in immunodeficiency, increased susceptibility to infections, and other systemic symptoms. It also affects blood-forming tissues, including the bone marrow and lymphatic system, leading to an overproduction of abnormal white blood cells.

To comprehensively analyse the perceived effects of contract farming on employment generation and poverty alleviation, it is imperative to adopt a systematic and scientific approach. This chapter elaborates on the research design, methodology and tools employed in conducting the present study. It encompasses the rationale behind the study locale selection, sampling techniques, instrument construction, data collection, variable operationalization and analytical methods. These methodological decisions are aimed at unearthing empirical evidence and formulating theoretical insights into the socio-economic implications of contract farming.
The study primarily seeks to understand the perceived outcomes of contract farming on rural livelihoods, particularly its influence on employment and poverty. Furthermore, it explores associated constraints and socio-economic characteristics of contract farmers, thereby constructing a robust conceptual framework grounded in empirical observations. The chapter is structured under the following sub-sections:
a) Locale of research
b) Sampling design
c) Pilot study
d) Hypothesis
e) Variables and their measurement
f) Method of data collection
g) Statistical and analytical tools

Introduction 
Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) serve as the foundation of any efficient and high-functioning laboratory, ensuring data reliability, patient safety and adherence to regulatory standards. In an environment where accuracy, consistency and data integrity are critical, comprehensive GLP training becomes the driving force behind operational excellence. A well-structured training program strengthens the capabilities of laboratory professionals, enabling them to navigate complex regulatory landscapes while upholding the highest standards of quality and safety. In today’s rapidly evolving scientific and industrial sectors, maintaining stringent laboratory standards is imperative rather than optional. GLP provides a structured approach that ensures every test, analysis and experimental procedure is carried out with precision, ethical rigor and strict adherence to safety measures. However, beyond simply following GLP principles, continuous assessment of laboratory personnel’s competency is essential to sustaining long-term proficiency and compliance. Competency assessment in GLP plays a crucial role in verifying whether laboratory staff possess the requisite expertise to perform tests accurately and generate reliable, scientifically valid results. As a framework designed to uphold the credibility of non-clinical laboratory studies, GLP is instrumental in reinforcing research integrity and ensuring compliance with regulatory authorities. Laboratories that rigorously follow GLP guidelines contribute to reproducible and verifiable scientific findings, which are vital for regulatory approvals and critical decision-making in pharmaceuticals, healthcare and research sectors. Competency assessments function as both a quality assurance mechanism and a professional development tool, guaranteeing that laboratory personnel not only comprehend standard protocols but can also execute them effectively in real-world scenarios. With the continuous evolution of laboratory sciences, training and assessment methodologies must also advance to meet new challenges. This chapter explores the transformation of GLP training and competency evaluation, emphasizing their significance, diverse methodologies and essential components. Additionally, it highlights best practices for implementation and introduces innovative strategies designed to complement established global standards, such as those outlined by the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) and the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR). By embracing these advancements, laboratories can not only achieve regulatory compliance but also cultivate a culture of excellence, ensuring that their workforce remains agile, skilled and prepared to meet the demands of modern scientific landscapes.

African agriculture is in crisis, and Africa’s farmland is losing its fertility at an alarming rate. Farmers grow the same crops in the same fields year. They don’t fertilize, and they don’t terrace their fields. When the soil wears out, the clear a new piece of land (wwww.npr.org). N. Kozana Diamini Luma, the Chairperson of the African Union Commission has emphasized that ‘the year 2014 – the year of Agriculture in Africa’ will be used as an opportunity to accelerate the drive for food security. The major thrust for that has to be on ensuring that the farmers make their profession on economic activity that generate wellbeing for all in a sustainable manner (1, 2).

Introduction

Food processing is an important sector in agriculture, the scope of which has increased manifold that can help to prevent wastage of perishable commodities to a great extent. But, at the same time, the food processing industries generate a large quantity and variety of food products, provide employment to a large number of people and uplift their economic status. The production, processing and preparation of food, all results in generation of huge quantity of waste material causing health hazards due to environmental pollution. The waste material may be in the form of leaf/ straw, waste during harvesting, food preparation waste, after processing waste, unused material as waste, food processing operation waste, etc. The huge wastage of the food material is due to lack of control on such agri-economy practices. So, the disposal of waste material has become a challenge to the processors, as different agencies are pressurizing for an environment friendly treatment of waste material. The utilization of waste for the production of value added products is very important in the management of food processing waste.

Abstract

Knowledge of  seed biology is crucial for proper management of  seed sources as well as the handling of seeds. In broadest sense seed technology includes the development of superior crop plant varieties, their evaluation and release, seed production, seed processing, seed storage, seed testing, seed certification, seed quality  control, seed marketing and distribution and research on various aspects. Vegetative propagation has also become popular for the propagation of some tree species, but seed propagation remains the principal mode of propagation in both the temperate and the tropical region. Forest plantations are a powerful tool in the continuing efforts of foresters to increase productivity per unit area apart from mitigating the climate change and global warming issues. Hence to improve the existing stock in terms of yield, quality, disease resistant and desired traits, seed technology can play a major role in providing quality genetic material.

Abstract

Recycling of organic wastes by chemical amendments and bio-inoculants are the recent developments in the technology for composting to manage voluminous wastes with economic advantages as well as environmental and social perspectives. Various composting technologies such as vermicomposting, P-enriched vermicompost, phospho-sulpho-nitro compost, phosphocompost and microbial enriched compost have been developed utilizing agro-industrial wastes, municipal solid wastes, distillery effluents and press mud, amended with certain mining waste materials such as rock phosphate and pyrites for increasing the nutrient supplying potential of the compost. It was observed that matured enriched compost (after 110 days of composting) contains 3.2 to 4.2% P and 1.5 to 2.3% N. In vermicomposting, earth worms helps in accelerating the decomposition processes and bringing down the composting period from six to eight months to around 2-3 months. Thus, enriched compost helps to produce higher yields of crops and also improve soil physical, chemical and biological conditions, thereby, enhancing productivity and sustainability of agriculture.

Management of Calf

Management before birth

    ·    As calf management begins before birth, a few days before the calf is born, the pregnant cow is transferred to a maternity paddock, which should be near the homestead (for closer observation), well watered and free from physical objects.
 
    ·    The signs of imminent parturition (calving) include filling of udder with milk and is turgid, vulva swollen with a string of mucus hanging from vagina.
 
    ·    Insemination records can also be used to estimate the expected calving date.