eChapters

ABSTRACT

Agriculture can act as a catalyst in accelerating growth and reducing poverty. Agriculture can be an important engine of growth and poverty reduction. But in spite of its futuristic capabilities, the sector is underperforming because the productivity is reduced because of the constraints faced by the women in agriculture and allied sector. The women are the backbone of agricultural workforce but worldwide their hard works have mostly been unpaid. They have to perform most tedious and back breaking part of work in agriculture, animal husbandry and at homes. The tribal women play a significant and crucial role in agricultural development and allied fields including in the main crop production, livestock production, horticulture, post harvest operations, agro / social forestry, fisheries, etc. Tribal women have to manage, often, complex and multiple livelihood strategies. Their activities typically include producing agricultural crops, tending animals, processing and preparing food, working for wages in agricultural or other rural enterprises, collecting fuel and water, engaging in trade and marketing, caring for family members and maintaining their homes. Women’s participation in rural labour markets varies considerably across regions, but invariably women are over represented in unpaid, seasonal and part-time work, and the available evidence suggests that women are often paid less than men, for the same work.

Introduction

India is an agriculture based country with 60% of the manpower employed in agriculture (World Bank, 2010). Few of the main environmental issues are soil erosion, water pollution from raw sewage and runoff of agricultural pesticides. There is a need to maintain a sustainable environment and a sustainable agricultural system.  Sustainable Agricultural system is a self sustaining system, is dependent up the ability to bring together and manage simultaneously the soil, water, plant and animal resources with the limitation of climatic and environment in such a way that the agricultural production/profitability can be maintained in the future too. So initiatives need to be taken to achieve a sustainable agricultural system. Tools have been developed to aid agriculturist, extension personnel and policy makers. The World Wide Web has made the tools easy accessible.

In cell biology, a mitochondrion is a membrane-enclosed organelle found in most eukaryotic cells These organelles range from 0.5–10 micrometers (µm) in diameter. Mitochondria are sometimes described as “cellular power plants” because they generate most of the cell’s supply energy in form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), used as a source of chemical energy. In addition to supplying cellular energy, mitochondria are involved in a range of other processes, such as signaling, cellular differentiation, cell death, as well as the control of the cell cycle and cell growth. Mitochondria have been implicated in several human diseases, including mitochondrial disorders and cardiac dysfunction, and may play a role in the aging process.

Several characteristics make mitochondria unique. The number of mitochondria in a cell varies widely by organism and tissue type. Many cells have only a single mitochondrion, whereas others can contain several thousand mitochondria. The organelle is composed of compartments that carry out specialized functions. These compartments or regions include the outer membrane, the intermembrane space, the inner membrane, and the cristae and matrix. Mitochondrial proteins vary depending on the tissue and the species. In humans, 615 distinct types of proteins have been identified from cardiac mitochondria; whereas in Murinae (rats), 940 proteins encoded by distinct genes have been reported. The number of proteins encoded in plant mitochondrial DNA is probably not much higher than the number encoded in mammalian mitochondria.Experiments have shown that most of the protein synthesis in isolated maize mitochondria can be accounted for by some 18-20 polypeptidesThe mitochondrial proteome is thought to be dynamically regulated. Although most of a cell’s DNA is contained in the cell nucleus, the mitochondrion has its own independent genome. Further, its DNA shows substantial similarity to bacterial genomes.

Enhancement of population is a global issue and the expected world population will be 9.7 billion in 2050 (UN, 2019). Under the situation, achievement of food and nutritional security is a major target with reduction of GHGs to the atmosphere and mitigation of ill effects of climate change. Modern agriculture is responsible for emission of GHGs in many ways and one of them is production of synthetic N fertilizer. There is no doubt about the fact that chemical N fertilizers enhance crop yield but it is at the cost of atmospheric equilibrium and agricultural sustainability cannot be achieved by this practice (Bedoussac et al. 2015; Layek et al., 2018).

Q1. Halothane is metabolized in to

1. Trifluoracetic acid
2. Inorganic chloride
3. Bromine
4. All the above

Q2. Psychomotor stimulants causes

1. Excitement
2. Relieve fatigue
3. Increase motor activity
4. All the above

Q3. Repeated administration of barbiturate causes

1. Tolerance
2. Drug dependence
3. Toxicity
4. All the above

Introduction to Internal Environment Analysis

Internal environment analysis is a critical component of strategic management that focuses on evaluating an organization's internal factors and resources. It involves assessing the internal strengths and weaknesses to gain insights into the organization's capabilities and competitive advantage. Here are some key points to highlight when discussing the introduction to internal environment analysis:

Internal environment analysis refers to the process of examining and evaluating an organization's internal factors, including its resources, capabilities, and core competencies. It helps identify strengths and weaknesses that can influence the organization's performance and competitiveness.

Purpose: The primary purpose of internal environment analysis is to understand the organization's internal dynamics and uncover key areas where it has a competitive advantage or faces challenges. It enables organizations to identify their core competencies and allocate resources effectively to achieve strategic goals.

The lives of farmers are intricately woven with the rhythms of nature, with weather playing a pivotal role in determining the success or failure of their crops. In an era where climate variability and extreme weather events are becoming increasingly common, the importance of accurate and reliable weather forecasts cannot be overstated. Farmers rely heavily on weather forecasts to make critical decisions that impact their agricultural practices, from planting and harvesting to irrigation and pest management. However, the process of using weather forecasts is not as straightforward as it may seem.
6.1. The Multifaceted Nature of Decision-Making
Farmers operate within a complex web of factors that influence their decisionmaking processes. Some of these factors include:
• Economic Considerations: Market fluctuations, input costs, and profit margins all play a role in shaping a farmer’s decisions. Weather forecasts must be considered in the context of these economic factors to ensure that decisions are financially viable.
• Social and Cultural Factors: Local traditions, community norms, and personal values can influence a farmer’s choices. For example, some farmers may prioritize environmental sustainability over profit maximization.
• Environmental Concerns: Soil health, water conservation, and biodiversity are all critical considerations for farmers. Weather forecasts must be integrated with these environmental concerns to ensure sustainable agricultural practices.
• Technological Advancements: The increasing use of precision agriculture, drones, and other technologies is changing the way farmers’ access and utilize weather information.
6.2. Challenges in Interpreting and Applying Weather Forecasts
The intricacies of interpreting and applying weather forecast data pose significant challenges for farmers. Some of these challenges include:
• Forecast Reliability: The accuracy and reliability of weather forecasts can vary significantly, making it difficult for farmers to trust and act upon the information.

Karonda (Carissa carandas L.) is found growing throughout India, mainly in the semi-arid  and arid regions. It is widely cultivated in the home gardens, farmer’s fields and orchards as hedge plant. Karonda is commonly used as a condiment or additive to Indian pickles and spices. Karonda is one of the few fruits indigenous to India while 30 species of genus Carissa have been reported; many species are found growing wildly in India while other species came from Malaysia and South Africa (Hayes, 1957). It is cultivated throughout India in tropical and sub-tropical areas for fruits (Rai and Gupta, 1996). In India Carissa are found growing most widely in plains and  Siwalik hills and grow wild in Deccan Peninsula, Maharashtra along the western ghats, parts of Gujarat, Punjab, lower ranges of J & K, U.P., Uttarakhand, Chhattisgarh M.P. and Aravalli hills, Mount Abu (Rajasthan). It also cultivated in other countries like Bangladesh, South Africa, U.S.A., Denmark, Ghana, Israel, Nepal and Pakistan.  It is also grows in the Sri Lanka lowland rain forests. It can be grown in any type of soil however; it is most suitable for planting in marginal lands (Sharma and Badiyala, 2002). It is a very hardy, drought-tolerant plant that thrives well in a wide range of soils. However, it is susceptible to very low temperature/frost under hot arid conditions (Singh et al., 2012).

Kale (Brassica oleracea L. convar. acephala (DC.) Alef.) is a representative of cole group of vegetables and cool-season cooking green somewhat similar to collard and non heading cabbage that has gained recent widespread attention due to its health-promoting, sulfur-containing phytonutrients. Kale is grown for its large foliage which is mainly used as leafy vegetable. This leafy vegetable is helpful in reducing the chances of cancer if taken regularly. Among the vegetable crops, kale is the richest source of carotenoids which is the precursor of vitamin-A. Besides, it also contains good amount of different minerals essential for human diet. There are several varieties of kale, all of which differ in taste, texture and appearance.

Reduced capacity or incapacity to fertilize by males/Impotentia generandi: Fertility is the normal functioning of the testes, accessory sex glands and ducts to deliver sperm of normal quantity and quality. Infertility or sterility in males is usually characterized by normal sexual desire and the ability to copulate and ejaculate but a complete or abnormally high percentage of failure of fertilization or conception. It may be seen when semen is normal on examination and on the other hand, the semen is abnormal in sperm morphology, concentration, motility and other qualities.

1. ______ an application of the accounting principles to the business of farming.

   a) Farm planning

   b) Farm budgeting

   c) Farm accounting

   d) Marketing

2. ‘Beef’ and ‘hides’ are examples of:

   a) Independent enterprise

   b) Joint enterprise

   c) Supplementary enterprise

   d) Compitative enterprise

Ageing of meat is also known as conditioning or tenderising or ripening or maturing and sometime resolution of rigor. It is a process of holding unprocessed meat above freezing point under controlled conditions. By this process we can make muscle soft and pliable thus meat becomes tender. When we keep the meat above freezing point at temperature between 0-3ºC then all those changes occurs which are normally occurs at higher temperature i.e. atmospheric oxidation and enzymatic action of fat, bacterial action etc. When this temperature range becomes below freezing point then it inhibits completely the enzymatic action in the muscles. Ageing is required for marked increase in flavour, juiciness and tenderness of meat. In this process action of enzymes in meat plays key role while bacterial action is not of any importance. Meat tenderness and taste are definitely improved if carcasses or vacuum packed cuts are conditioned after slaughter but paradoxically beef is quite tender just two hours after slaughter and several days of conditioning are required to recover this degree of tenderness.

During the contraction of muscles, thick and thin filaments sliding to each other and decreases the length of sarcomeres. In turn, this decreases the length of fibrils, fibres and the whole muscle. If these muscles remain in contracted length when rigor develops, it causes massive overlap of thick and thin filaments leading to severe meat toughness. It is also necessary to avoid the cooling of meat too rapidly after slaughter, otherwise it cold-shortens and gets tough. If we avoid cold-shortening of muscles during conditioning, it will increase meat tenderness. But with too much conditioning, weight loss, surface spoilage and the cost of refrigerated storage increases.

Ageing of carcasses with little or no fat cover is not recommended by meat specialists. Because these carcasses loose moisture rapidly, loose weight excessively and discolour the meat surface rapidly. In addition, lean meat is also susceptible to deterioration through microbial growth, slime formation by bacteria and mould growth etc. Ageing is important for beef and buffalo meat while pork and lamb do not require ageing because they are slaughtered in the age where they are young and inherently tender. Additionally, the unsaturated fats found in pork fat oxidize during ageing causes rancidity and off flavour. Veal has very little protective fat covering and is high in moisture; thus it does not lend itself to ageing.

Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.), belonging to the family Moraceae, is indigenous to the rain forests of the Western Ghats of India (Menon and Peter, 2011; Amma anbd Kumaran, 2011; Alila and Sanyal, 2011). It spread early onto other parts of India, south-east Asia, the East Indies and the Philippines. It is often planted in central and eastern Africa and is fairly popular in Brazil and Surinam (Menon, 2011). Its tree is adapted to humid tropical and near-tropical climates. The jackfruit tree is handsome and stately. In the tropics, it grows to an enormous size. One of the popular cultivar, Ceylon, was introduced into India from Ceylon and planted extensively in our country.

PRESENT STATUS

India is the second largest producer of jack fruit in the world and better known as the motherland of jackfruit (Verhji and Coronel, 1992; Chadha, 2003; Amma and Kumaran, 2011). Though, it is indigenous to India, but also found widely grown in Bangladesh, Burma, Sri lanka, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Brazil and other tropical countries (Milan, 2011). In India, it has wide distribution in Asam, Tripura, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, foothills of the Himalayas and Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. Jackfruit is the national fruit of Bangladesh. It is one of the three auspicious fruits of Tamil Nadu along with mango and banana. Jackfruit is very extensively grown all over the state of Tripura. As per the records of the Department of Horticulture and Soil Conservation, Government of Tripura, the area under jackfruit is about 9,012 ha with a total production of 2,69,404 tonnes (2012-13).

Introduction

Leafy vegetables belong to an important group of vegetables and are highly nutritious due to their richness in Vitamin A (Carotene), Vitamin C, Folic acid, Riboflavin, Thiamine and minerals like Iron, Calcium and Phosphorus etc. Appreciable quantity of proteins is also found in these crops. They also provide a variety of phyto-nutrients including beta-carotene, lutein and zeaxanthin, which protect cells from damage, age-related problems, among many other effects. Dark green leaves even contain small amounts of Omega-3 fat. They are available at cheaper rate in the market as compared to other vegetables. They provide roughage and have an important place in the balanced diet. It is recommended that a daily intake of 100 g and 40 g of leafy vegetables in the diet of woman and man respectively. India is the 2^nd largest producer of leafy vegetables in the world after China, accounted for about 10% of the world production (Singh et al., 2006) but, the production levels of these leafy vegetables are very low because of lack of availability of high yielding varieties. Leafy vegetables are those crops from which leaves and associated parts are harvested for use as vegetable. The leaves of about 700 different kinds of plants belonging to125 families are consumed in the form of vegetables. The major leafy vegetables grown in the country are amaranth, spinach beet (desi palak), spinach and fenugreek. In addition to this a number of under-utilized annual crops are also grown as leafy vegetables in specific regions. Leafy vegetables are usually grown in kitchen and market gardens. Tender stems and leaves of a number of perennial crops are rich sources of vitamins and minerals and are used for cooking. Though leafy vegetables have high nitrate and oxalate levels, but adverse nutritional effects are not to be feared with a consumption level of 100-200 g per day. The commonly grown major leafy vegetables and their wild relatives are listed below

Introduction

The ultimate aim of agricultural research or any other related activity is to increase yield. Yield improvement could be obtained mainly through the enhancement of photosynthetic efficiency. Photosynthesis is a process in which plants convert light energy to chemical energy. Sun is the ultimate source of energy for photosynthesis. However only half of the total solar radiation (51%) reaches the earth’s surface of these only 1.2% reaches the plant canopy. Solar spectrum contains an array of other radiations which can be harmful for plant and human life. With increasing global climatic change amount of harmful radiation reaching the earth’s surface has increased and this is found to influence plant productivity. Under this scenario, protected cultivation is gaining popularity in many countries as it helps to reduce harmful effects of undesirable radiation, to allow cultivation of crops irrespective of seasons and also expand cultivation to non-traditional areas by artificially manipulating crop environment. In this context, spectral manipulation for crop production has emerged as an important area in crop production system

INTRODUCTION

Education, as is widely argued is a method of knowledge sharing and distance education is a concept in education that is widely prevalent. Several people around the world qualify themselves through this mode of education. Though widely popular, it has its limitations with respect to production, reproduction and distribution costs, however, the role of distance education is shifting (Caswell et al. 2008). This shift is accomplished with the help of technology, which reduces and almost nullifies the reproduction costs (Caswell et al. 2008). This is a step towards making the quality of life of learners around the world improve (Caswell et al. 2008). Further as Caswell et al. (2008), rightly quote that, this is also the beginning of a movement to ensure the Universal Declaration of Human Rights article 26, which declares that everyone has the right to education and “technical and professional education shall be made generally available” (United Nations, 1948).

Distance learning made possible through the help of technology specifically the internet or e-learning is not a new concept. Several individual course materials are available online (Baldi et al. 2003). However, systematically organizing and structuring the academic course materials from different disciplines and easy retrieval of such information is a sign of innovation (Baldi et al. 2003). This innovation which is currently made possible through initiatives of different Universities, institutes of learning and organizations is popularly titled Open Course Ware (OCW).

Pre-harvest factors are responsible for the majority of post-harvest losses. Fruits which have already been infected with insects and pathogens, have been poorly irrigated and fertilized, or are of low quality before harvesting will never benefit with post-harvest cures. As a result, the process of accomplishing production quality, as well as harvesting, processing, and selling, must be taken into account.

8.1 Introduction

Conservation agriculture (CA) is an approach to regenerative agriculture and land management practices based on three interlinked principles: (1) continuous minimum mechanical soil disturbance using no-tillage or reduced tillage based crop cultivation, (2) maintenance of permanent soil cover using crop residues and cover crops and (3) diversification of cropping system using economically, environmentally and socially adapted crop rotation including legume crops and cover crops coupled with other complementary agronomic management practices (FAO, 2014).

Cattle and buffalo are central to livestock-based livelihoods in India, particularly within natural farming systems where emphasis is placed on maintaining animal health and productivity without the use of synthetic inputs. The feeding strategy in such systems is built around the use of locally available, chemical-free resources that support sustainability and ecological harmony.
The core of the diet for cattle and buffalo in natural farming includes green fodder, dry crop residues, and naturally sourced supplements. Green fodders such as napier grass, guinea grass, berseem, and various legumes provide essential nutrients and roughage. These are complemented by dry fodders like wheat and paddy straw, which are vital for maintaining rumen health through their fiber content.
Natural concentrates such as oilseed cakes (from mustard, groundnut, etc.), along with pulses and mineral sources like crushed limestone and rock salt, are used to supply energy, protein, and essential minerals. In addition, herbs like turmeric, ginger, and ashwagandha are incorporated to enhance digestion and boost immunity naturally.
Seasonal fodder planning is practiced to maintain a continuous supply of feed throughout the year. Farmers often rely on traditional microbial additives such as Jeevamrit—a fermented solution made from cow dung, cow urine, jaggery, and water—which promotes gut health and improves feed efficiency.
Clean and sufficient water access is also a priority, with adult cattle and buffalo requiring around 30 to 50 liters per day depending on body size and milk production.

1. Introduction
Aquaculture is rapidly emerging as one of the most important sectors in global food production, supplying an increasing share of the world’s demand for high-quality protein. As global populations rise and overfishing depletes wild fish stocks, aquaculture has become essential in addressing the global food security challenge. The expansion of aquaculture, however, presents a new set of challenges, particularly in the formulation and delivery of efficient and sustainable aquafeeds. Fish and crustaceans, like all living organisms, require precise nutrition for optimal growth, immune function, and reproduction. In commercial aquaculture, ensuring that farmed species receive the right balance of nutrients through formulated feeds is crucial to achieving high productivity and minimizing environmental impact.
`Traditional aquafeeds are designed to meet the nutritional needs of farmed species; however, they face several obstacles when it comes to efficient nutrient delivery. The aquatic environment poses unique challenges for feed stability and nutrient bioavailability, including:
• Water Stability: Aquatic feeds must resist rapid breakdown when exposed to water, ensuring that nutrients remain intact until they are ingested by fish or crustaceans.
• Nutrient Leaching: In water, nutrients can leach out of feeds before they are consumed, reducing their availability and increasing waste.
• Complex Dietary Requirements: Aquatic species have diverse and often complex dietary needs, which must be met through balanced and targeted feed formulations.