eChapters

Introduction
Recent scientific findings highlight the escalating threats to global agricultural production due to climate change. The surge in extreme weather events, amplified by erratic precipitation patterns, alongside diminishing soil fertility and declining plant productivity, has led to an upsurge in disease and pest pressures. This amalgamation of factors has propelled a distressing trend of crop failures on a global scale. Over the last century, the average global temperature has already risen by 0.74°C, and projections suggest this rise could accelerate dramatically, reaching an alarming 2.6–4.8°C by the close of this century. This impending temperature escalation from climate change endangers agricultural output, thereby posing a signifi cant risk to the world’s food security. Presently, a staggering 794.6 million individuals face undernourishment, with nutrition-related issues contributing to a staggering 45% of deaths in children under fi ve years of age. The situation is particularly dire in developing regions, where 779.9 million people grapple with undernourishment. The repercussions of reduced agricultural production extend beyond hunger; they encompass potential food shortages and infl ationary pressures, predominantly affecting populations in low-income regions. These adverse consequences underscore the imperative of addressing these challenges. While advancements in crop breeding have led to incremental genetic gains in major agricultural crops, the pace of progress remains inadequate to meet the mounting global food demands. It is evident that enhancing the rate of genetic gain through innovative breeding programs is vital. This endeavor holds the potential to expedite the development of crop varieties resilient to changing climates and endowed with higher nutrient densities. Such cultivars are essential for ensuring sustainable food production and bolstering food security for our burgeoning population.

Microbial diversity is the key to human survival and economic well being. It provides a huge reservoir of resources which can be utilized for our benefit. Yeasts have been isolated from many sources for industrial purposes. The impact of yeasts on food and beverage production extends many fold beyond the popular notions of bread, beer and wine fermentations by Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Diverse dynamic mixed populations of prokaryotic and lower eukaryotic microorganisms govern the fermentation and maturation processes and, finally, impact the quality of wine. Both of these parameters apparently contribute to regional differences in the quality of produced wines and characterization of regional wines should involve the study of microbial populations and their members active in the given region.

Abstract

A pot experiment was conducted to evaluate the genotypic variability with respect to agronomic and physiological traits of Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea L. Verdc.) landraces collected from three contrasting environments during 2010-11 in a randomized complete block design with nine replications under transparent shade house at the University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus in Semenyih, Selangor.

Common rules for fine laboratory techniques call for:

    ·    A laboratory should have a record and a complete up to-date record of all the equipments and their operating manual.
    ·    A laboratory should have a record and detailed up to-date record of all the chemicals including the name of manufacturer with their     grade and arranged alphabetically in specific area
    ·    Strong acid and bases in safe area.
    ·    Chloroform, alcohol which are volatile or toxic must be stored in fume hood.

Fig (Ficus carica  Linn.)  also called ‘Anjeer’ is a nutritive and delicious fruit. Its tree is native to western Asia. It is rich in calories (269), protein, and calcium (higher than milk), iron and fibre content. The small deciduous plants of fig are grown in different parts of the country. Fig has been cultivated since ancient period (4000 BC.) and well known through out the world. It is originated in Middle East and naturalized in many parts of the world. Fig tree plantations cover 426,244 ha. area in the world with an overall yield 1070676million tones. The largest fig growing countries are Turkey, Egypt, Iran, Greece and Algeria (Pasqual and Ferreira, 2007). It is also grown in some parts of Australia, California, New- Zealand and Argentina.

Introduction

Spatial planning tools brings together multiple users of the earth to make informed and coordinated decisions about how to use of resources  and helps to organize, analyze and present information from a number of different sources.  Thus, viewing from single interest or multiple use viewpoints is enhanced and can make a very important contribution to environment. Use of Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographical Information Systems (GIS) tools has the capacity to bring together experts from a variety of disciplines to address complex spatial problems.

Introduction

It is the national fruit of India. No other fruit can compete with mango in respect to area, production, nutritive value, and popularity. For this reason, the mango is known as the king of fruits. In India, mango cultivation is 40006000 years old. Growing states are U.P., followed by A.P. and to some extent in all the rest of the states. It is also grown in India, China, Thailand, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma, Malaya, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Egypt, Africa, Florida, Hawaii, Brazil, Mexico, etc. Unripe fruits are used for culinary purposes, such as pickles, powder, chutney, and sarbat. Ripe fruits are used for squash, jam, toffee, juice, slices, and canning of pulp and slices.

Definition of silage: Silage refers to the product obtained when fresh, high-moisture green fodder undergoes fermentation in a controlled anaerobic environment. This process generates volatile fatty acids that help preserve the green material for an extended period.
Ensiling: The act of preserving green fodder as silage is termed ensiling
Silo: A silo is a sealed container designed for the preparation of silage. In India, pit silos are commonly used, typically measuring 2.4 to 3 meters in depth. For every cubic meter of space, approximately 400 kg of fodder can be accommodated, while a cubic foot can hold between 18 to 22 kg of fodder in a pit silo. Other types of silos include trench silos, bunker silos and tower silos. In rural areas, katcha silos are often constructed by excavating a pit or trench in the ground, with the walls and floor usually coated with a mixture of cow dung and clay in a 1:1 ratio.
Crops suitable for silage making: Crops that are high in soluble carbohydrates are ideal for silage production. Suitable options for ensiling include maize, sorghum, pearl millet, Napier grass and oats. Leguminous fodder crops are generally not suitable for ensiling unless they are combined with carbohydrate-rich fodders in a ratio of 1:3. The recommended ratio of green, succulent fodder to dry straw is 4:1 and the crops should contain approximately 30-35% dry matter at the time of ensiling. Hollow-stemmed plants are typically unsuitable for ensiling due to the air trapped within the stems; however, if the stems are trampled, they can yield good silage. To effectively ensile cultivated or natural grasses an addition of 3-3.5% molasses is necessary. Grasses and legumes present challenges for ensiling; grasses tend to be low in soluble carbohydrates, while legumes possess high moisture content, elevated protein levels and increased mineral content, which enhance their buffering capacity and resistance to pH fluctuations. Harvesting: The crop should be harvested between flowering and milk stage as they contain maximum amount of nutrients at that time. Crops with thick stems are suitable for silage making whereas thin stemmed crops are conserved for hay making.

Large quantities of crop residues are produced and if properly used, they can provide cost effective means for supplying organic matter, plant nutrients and improved soil health. The highly lignocellulosic nature of crop residues indicate their potential role in maintaining soil organic matter and enriching the soils with N-rich microbial biomass resulting from decompositions. However, their indiscriminate handling often burning leads to decline in soil health, air pollution and overall loss. Since most crop residues find use as feed and fuel, efficient recycling of the remaining amount can have very significant and positive effect.

Abstract

The greatest challenge facing us in the coming years is to produce adequate amounts of basic necessities of food, feed, fibre, fuel and raw materials for the rapidly shrinking per capita agricultural land. One alternative is to make a sustainable use of existing marginal lands. In many regions of the tropics and sub-tropics, the need to use marginal low-input soils with usually inadequate nutrient(s) supply permits only very low or unreliable yields to be achieved. It is frequently not possible  to supply required amounts of mineral fertilizers or chemical pesticides because of the low purchasing power of the marginal farmers. In particular, it is not possible to compensate for the deficient nutrient supply and this constitutes a yield limiting factor. The role of soil microorganisms in sustainable productivity has been well construed. In recent years, root inhabiting (rhizozosphere) bacteria (rhizobacteria) is gaining importance.

One of the most essential factors governing the growth and morphogenesis of plant tissues in culture is the composition of the culture medium. The basic nutrient requirements of cultured plant cells are very similar to those of whole plants. The basic nutritional requirements of cultured plant cells as well as plants are very similar. However, the nutritional composition varies according to the cells, tissues, organs and protoplasts and also with respect to particular plant species.  The appropriate composition of the medium largely determines the success of the culture. A wide variety of salt mixtures  have been reported in various media. A nutrient medium is defined by its mineral salt composition, carbon source, vitamins, plant growth regulators (PGR) and other organic supplements. When referring to a particular medium, the intention is to identify only the salt composition unless otherwise specified. Any number and concentration of amino acids, vitamins, growth regulators and organic supplements can be added in an infinite variety of compositions to a given salt composition in order to achieve the desired product.

Advantages and limitations of artificial insemination

Artificial insemination is the first great biotechnology applied to improve reproduction and genetics of domestic animals. Artificial insemination includes the collection of semen from the male, semen assessment for quantity and quality, dilution with extender, preservation and then insemination. Artificial insemination (A.I.) is a breeding technique where semen with living sperm is deposited into the reproductive tract of a female who is in estrus by use of instruments. Artificial insemination is the most important single technique widely used worldwide to upgrade the genetic makeup of the farm animals. Artificial insemination can be performed in most of the domestic animals like cow, buffalo, mare, sow, bitch, queen cat, lambs, does etc. Due to invention of frozen semen technology, the extended semen doses can be preserved for years together and permit wide spread use of superior germplasm. Artificial insemination is a powerful tool mostly employed for livestock improvement. The advantages and limitations of frozen semen technology are enlisted below:

INTRODUCTION

Zoonoses are diseases and infections which are naturally transmitted between vertebrate animals and humans. The pathogens that cause zoonotic diseases are bacteria, fungi, viruses, parasites or protozoa. Disease transfer occurs via direct or indirect exposure to the pathogen. A pathogen is contracted directly through skin to skin contact of an infected animal or through ingestion of diseased animal products (infected faeces, urine, saliva, blood, milk or other bodily fluids). A bite or sting from a diseased animal or through an infected invertebrate host directly transfers the pathogen to humans as well. Indirect exposure occurs through air, water or soil in which the pathogen can survive for a limited period of time without a host ( Acha, et al., 2003).

CLASSIFICATION OF ZOONOSES

The World Health Organization (WHO) Expert Committee on Zoonoses came up with the following classification system of zoonoses based on the type of life cycle of the pathogen.

Mycorrhizal symbiosis is the most prevalent and important mutualistic association in plant kingdom. ‘Mycorrhiza’- the word means fungus - root, this association was reported by A.B.Frank in the year 1885. Nearly 95% of plant species form this mycorrhizal association. This serves as critical linkage between plant roots and soil and characterized by the movement of plant produced carbon to fungus and fungal acquired nutrients to plants. Through its hyphae this fungus absorbs the available P from soil and transports directly to root cortex. Mycorrhizal associations vary widely in structure and function. There are seven types of mycorrhizae (Table 1). These are endo (arbuscular), ecto, ectendo, arbutoid, monotropoid, ericoid, and orchidaceous mycorrhizae. Among them, endomycorrhizae and ectomycorrhizae are the most abundant and widespread

21.1 Cost Principle

 We know that

 TC = VC + FC

 and Net Revenue = TR-TC.

In the short run, gross revenue (G.R.) must cover the V.C. The maximum net revenue is obtained when MC = M.R. If GRs VC, the guiding principle should be to keep increasing production as long as MR > M.C. In the short run, MC = MR point may be at a level of input use that may involve a loss instead of profit. Yet at this point, the loss will be minimised.This situation of operating the farm when MR > AVC but

Introduction

India is the largest producer, consumer and exporter of turmeric in the world. Indian turmeric is considered to be the best in the world market because of its high curcumin content. India accounts for about 80 per cent of world turmeric production and 60 per cent of world exports. Major turmeric exporting countries are India, Thailand, Taiwan, and several other Southeast Asian, Central and Latin American countries. The major turmeric importing countries include Japan, Sri Lanka, Iran, UAE, US, UK and Ethiopia.

Turmeric is native of India and china. The word turmeric is derived from the French word ‘Terre-merite’ meaning merit of the earth. Its botanical name is Curcuma longa L. and belongs to family Zingeberaceae, it is also known as ‘Indian Saffron’ is an herbaceous perennial plant growing up to the height of 60 – 90 cm with short stem. The plant is propagated from rhizomes. The leaves are long, broad lanceolate and bright green. The flowers are pale yellow and born on dense spikes. The pseudo stem are shorter than leaves. The rhizomes were ready for harvesting about 7 to 9 months after planting.

India is popularly known as the “Spiced Bowl of the World” as a wide variety of spices with premium quality grown in a country since ancient times. Indian turmeric is considered to be the best in the world due to presence of high curcumine content. Turmeric contains up to 5.00 per cent essential oil and up to 5.00 per cent curcumine, a polyphenol.

Introduction

Poultry is one of the most widespread food industries worldwide. Chicken is the most common type of poultry in the world. The term broiler is applied to chickens that have especially been bred for meat; they grow rapidly. Broiler strains are based on hybrid crosses between Cornish White, New Hampshire and White Plymouth Rock. In broiler production there are two main production phases – keeping of parent stock and production of day-old-chicken (DOC); and growing and finishing of broilers.

The primary purpose of any enterprise is to maximize return on investment over the long-term. It is therefore necessary to market poultry, meat products, and eggs at a price which allows farmers or integrators to maintain profitability in a competitive market. Cost-effective programs of biosecurity and vaccination are required to prevent or limit the impact of disease. It is emphasized that the incremental return in the form of enhanced egg production, hatchability, liveability, growth rate, and feed conversion efficiency must exceed capital and operating expenditures on disease prevention.

Among the small ruminants, goat is perhaps the most useful animal providing milk as well as meat. It is also superior in converting the feeds to meat and other products in a short period than most of the other livestock (Pandit&Dhaka,2005). Goats contribute milk, meat, fiber, skins and manure to the subsistence of small holders and landless rural poor. Goat meat accounted for almost 37 per cent of the total meat production in the country (Chandra, 2002). Importance of goats lies in the fact that human population is increasing very rapidly creating increasing demands for animal protein foods on the one hand and the feed resources for large ruminants are decreasing due to shrinkage of grazing lands on the other.Goats make important economic contributions in India. They are so vital to a large human population that their contribution to national economy cannot be overlooked. Goats require relatively much lower investments and facilities in terms of housing, feed, labour and health care. There is quick pay of dues because of fast multiplication and early maturity. Further, the risk involved in goat farming is much lower compared to other livestock and crops production.In Gujarat state, Population of milch goat has shown increasing trend as it was 23.36 lakh in 1951 and in year 2019 it found 48.68 lakh, which shows 47.98%, increased. As per the previous livestock census i.e. 2012, goat population declined by 1.84 percent which shows goat farming should give emphasis to enhance rural farmer’s income.

Abstract

Mitochondrial (mt) genomic study may reveal significant insight into the molecular evolution and several other aspects of genome evolution such as gene rearrangements evolution, gene regulation, and replication mechanisms. Other questions such as patterns of gene expression, mechanism of evolution, genomic variation and its correlation with physiology, and other molecular and biochemical mechanisms can be addressed by the mt genomics. Rare genomic changes have attracted evolutionary biology community for providing homoplasy free evidence of phylogenetic relationships. Gene rearrangements are considered to be rare evolutionary events and are being used to reconstruct the phylogeny of diverse group of organisms. Mitochondrial gene rearrangements have been established as a hotspot for the phylogenetic and evolutionary analysis of closely as well as distantly related organisms. This evolutionary episode has significant contribution among animals as well as plants and serves as an important genomic evolutionary event for the analysis of mitogenomes on large scale.

Introduction

Marketing sector via value addition has gained momentum with the rapidly growing flora industry. It is the ultimate way to rescue the flowers from the huge postharvest losses. Value addition in form of floral craft increases the economic value and consumer appeal of floricultural commodities and serving as a linkage between growers and consumers, it directly emphasizes the utility of flowers and a necessity for marketing of flowers. Other forms of value addition in flowers like essential oils, tinting, flower-drying, natural dye, art of floral arrangements are gaining momentum and popularising in our country as well.