eChapters

In nature, plantspecies flowers produce fruits and seeds and the primary objective is to reproduce them. Plant species those are unable to produce viable seeds, reproduce themselves by other means. With a common of these processes they vary in various aspects of flowering and fruiting. The variations may be due to their different growing habits, requirement of different environments, differences in their basic nature etc. Here we are going to discuss different types of bearing habits do exists in fruit crops.

Growth Habit

Growth is quantitative irreversible increase in the existing size of say plant or a shoot or simply a leaf etc. Fruit crops can be classified on the basis of their growth habits in two major classes. One is evergreen and second is deciduous. Evergreens include those plants which bear their leaves throughout the year. Examples are mango, litchi, guava and orange. Whereas, deciduous trees shed their leaves during a part of year (when weather is adverse i.e. during winter). Mostly temperate fruits belong to this category. The presence or absence of leaves makes very big difference in their physiology, their bearing season and pattern etc. These two categories also make a basic group to study them separately with respect to many aspects viz. source and sink relationships, pruning etc.

Genetic purity is the vital determinant in continuing the genetic integrity in seed from generation to generation. This is the basis of variety purity maintenance. The genetic purity depends upon the purity of the seeds planted. The genetic purity of the seeds planted must exceed or equal to the final product purity standards required as the purity generally decreases with subsequent generations of propagation. The improved varieties loose their identity and healthiness unless properly maintained. Maintenance selection can prevent the seed quality deterioration.

Introduction

Origin of Water Bodies and Hot Arid Regions (Thar Desert) 

The origin of the hot arid regions (Thar Desert) is a controversial subject. Some consider it to be 4000 to 10,000 years old, whereas others state that aridity started in this region much earlier. Another theory states that area turned to hot arid zones (desert) relatively recently: perhaps around 2000 - 1500 BC. Around this time the Ghaggar-Hakra ceased to be a major river. It now terminates in the desert but at one time was a water source for the Indus Valley Civilization centre of Mohenjodaro. It has been observed through remote sensing techniques that Late Quaternary climatic changes and neotectonics have played a significant role in modifying the drainage courses in this part and a large number of palaeochannels exist.

Abstract

Climate is changing naturally at its own pace, since the beginning of evolution of earth, 4–5 billion years ago, but presently it has gained momentum due to inadvertent anthropogenic disturbances. Global climate is changing and it can have serious implications for our food security through its direct and indirect effects on crops, soils, live stocks, fisheries and pests. In the developing countries including India there has been relatively less attention paid to this topic in an integrated manner. Agriculture is the largest human activity in the world which depends on climatic parameters. We can manipulate soil, water and nutrient management practices but manipulation of climate is beyond our control. It influences crop-pest equilibrium. More than 50% differences in yield are due to climatic variation. Different causes of climate change are: A) Natural cause: Earth orbit, Global warming, Mountains, Sun, and Volcano. B) Anthropogenic cause: Global warming, Deforestation, Change in land use pattern. Climate change is a present reality and a major risk for future generations. Implementing energy conservation methods and utilizing renewable resource such as green power (power from moon, hydrogen fuel, nuclear power, sewage power, geothermal power and power of the mighty sun). Government should also encourage the use of mass transit; provide tax rebates for people who buy low and no pollution vehicles and subsidies to fossil fuels and the nuclear industries.

Every small business manager is a personnel manager in the sense that work is done through people, with people and for the people. Consequently, the owner-manager should be personally capable of handling employee relations until the company becomes large enough to afford a personnel manager. Planning personnel requirement, developing sources from which new employees can be recruited, choosing (recruiting) the needed people, training and developing them into productive workers, evaluating their performance, compensating them and dealing with various personnel relationship, including industrial relation are included under personnel management.

Staffing

Staffing is a critical function of organizing and managing a successful business. All companies, whether large or small, are involved in the staffing process. All businesses run the same risk every time they hire a new employee. The staffing function is generally divided into four major categories (1) staffing needs, (2) acquisition, (3) motivation, and (4) retention.

Introduction

Today, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has become a global issue, contributing to rise in mortality and cost of treatment. Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is the resistance of a microorganism against an antimicrobial agent to which it was originally sensitive (WHO, 2013). Dispersion of antibiotics is done at large scale, in India even sometimes without any proper prescription. Animal Husbandry is not untouched and antibiotics are used to a great extent, which needs enforcement of strict government rules and regulations for their use in f ield conditions (PHFI, 2011).

Extended-spectrum β-lactamases (ESBLs) are enzymes that hydrolyse most of the β-lactam antibiotics and thus mediate resistance to penicillins, 3rd and 4th generation cephalosporins (Saravanan et al., 2018). Beta-lactamase inhibitors, inhibit these ESBLs such as clavulanic acid, sulbactam and tazobactam (Trott, 2013). The genes encoding for these enzymes are commonly found both on the chromosomes and plasmids among Enterobacteriaceae family (Kotsoana et al., 2019).

Among Enterobacteriacae, E. coli and Klebsiella species are main environmental pathogens associated with various illnesses such as acute bovine mastitis (Koovapra, 2015), pathogenic E. coli with diarrhoea and extra intestinal infections in humans and animals (Levine et al., 1987), K. pneumoniae with respiratory and urinary tract as well as bloodstream infections (Daehre et al., 2018). Resistance to extended-spectrum β-lactams occurs mainly in members of Enterobacteriaceae family through plasmids encoded ESBL genes. (Sharma et al., 2010).

1 Human and Animal Interactions in the Ecosystem
1.1 Evolution

It is proved that humans and animals share common ancestors as per evolution process. Thus, it is likely that, animal capacities are similar to humans, but these capacities differ only in degree. Furthermore, if the capacity for a particular feeling gives an adaptive advantage to an animal, then this provides supportive evidence for its existence. The presence of very similar neurological structures in other animals constitutes some sort of evidence that they can have the same sorts of mental states as humans. In the process of evolution depending on the favourable and unfavourable environmental factors, few organisms may die and few organisms might multiply. The relationship between biotic and abiotic components helps in the formation of ecosystem. In this ecosystem each and every organisms have equal chance to survive. The evolution process is well explained by Darwin’s theory.

Biodiversity is the variety of life in different microbes, animals, plants and their genes present in the ecosystem. Soil provides a vital habitat and environment primarily for microflora such as bactria, actinomycetes, fungi as well as microfauna viz. protozoa and nematodes, mesofauna such as microarthopods, enchytraeids, macrofauna such as earthworms, beetles, termites and millipedes (Gaur 2006a).

Biodiversity and soil are interlinked which interact closely with wider biosphere. Conversely, biological activity is ofprime importance in influencing the physical and chemical conditions of soil (Bardgett 2005). The level of soil biological activity is, therefore, affected by soil type and also depends on the use of management practices which contribute to crop productivity.

Soil biodiversity and soil processes

A majority of soil organisms participate in various processes which are essential for the biosphere. The main ecological function is to decompose organic matter largely derived from the plant and animals residues Which consist of celluloses, hemicelluloses and lignin, and to supply plant nutrients to support growth. These organisms participate in various nutrient cycles and processes such as nitrogen mineralization, nitrification, nitrogen fixation, transformations ofphosphorus, potassium, sulphur, calcium, magnesium, iron and micronutrients (Pankhurst et al 1997). They participate in bioremediation of harmful compounds such as heavy metals and pesticide residues (Gaur 2006 b). They not only maintain physical and chemical conditions of soil, but also regulate emissions / assimilations of green house gases and suppress soil borne diseases and pests

Introduction

Seed is a living entity (mature ovule) consisting of a tiny plant in embryonic stage along with the stored food protected by an outer layer known as seed coat. Seed is an important biological input in agriculture, which is economically important for successful crop husbandry. Cotyledons serve as the source of nutrients (proteins, carbohydrates, and oils) that not only nurture the plant at the early developmental (seedling) stages of plant but also the vegetarian (heterotroph) organisms. Being one of the important inputs in agriculture, viability of seed needs to be assessed to know the germination percentage of seeds used to raise a crop. Since viability of seeds may deteriorate on storage depending on the storage conditions. Therefore, often it becomes important to test viability/germinability and vigour of seeds before being used for raising a crop or conducting an experiment. In this chapter, we briefly discuss about the different methods which can be used for testing the viability of seeds.

Seed Viability

Seed viability can be defined as the capability of the seed to germinate and produce a normal seedling within a specified period. In other words, seed viability indicates how many seeds in a lot are alive and could develop into plants under appropriate field conditions. It is very important that most of the stored seeds are capable of germinating when sown in a field. They must possess higher viability at the beginning of storage and maintain it over the storage. A seed with high initial viability survives longer in storage; however, the viability deteriorates slowly at first and then rapidly as the storage prolongs. It is important to know the duration of storage after which a considerable decline in viability occurs under given storage conditions so that to take necessary action to revive the seeds. Excessive deterioration in vianility of seeds may lead to loss of the seed/material/ germplasm.

Introduction

The term “green intellectual property” (IP) is used to describe the legal protections afforded to environmentally friendly innovations. It’s a strategy for saving the planet by stimulating development of environmentally friendly products and methods. For a very long time, plastic consumption has been a huge environmental problem. A report on single-use plastics has been released by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), outlining steps towards environmental sustainability. This research analyses the efforts made at the national, state, and local levels to reduce the usage of disposable plastics. Policymakers considering restricting the manufacturing and use of single-use plastics may find the insights it presents helpful. In 2015, the United Nations General Assembly established the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) as part of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. By 2030, the world’s population should be free of poverty, the planet would be in good shape, and people would live in peace and prosperity. Several of these targets address plastic use; for example, 12: Responsible Consumption and Production, 13: Climate Action, 14: Life Below Water, and 15: Life on Land.

Bio-stimulants are increasingly used to improve crop performance while reducing dependence on intensive chemical inputs. They include amino acids, protein hydrolysates, humic substances, seaweed extracts, beneficial microorganisms and plant- or microbial-derived compounds. These substances can influence root architecture, nutrient assimilation, hormonal balance, photosynthesis, stress tolerance and disease resistance. This chapter examines the effects of different bio-stimulants on onion seed germination, vegetative growth, bulb development, yield, quality and storage life. It discusses their modes of action, application methods and integration with nutrient-management programmes. Bio-stimulants are presented as promising components of environmentally responsible and resource-efficient onion production, while areas requiring further research are identified.

Race: A subspecific category that is based on particular attributes, such as behavioral or physiological (other than morphological) differences; similar to a subspecies; often used in describing plant pathogens.

Race: Subspecies (q.v.).

Race: A naturally occurring group within a species usually visually indistinguishable but with some physiological difference from other members of the species, e.g., with a different plant host range. cf. strain.

Radial cell: A cell bordered anteriorly by a branch of the radius; the marginal cell (Hymenoptera).

Radial cross vein: A cross vein connecting R₁ and the branch of the radius immediately behind it.

Radial sector: The posterior of the two main branches of the radius.

Radiation: See Adaptive radiation.

Abstract

The potent greenhouse gases N₂O and CO₂ are relased by aerobic/anaerobic respiring bacteria, archaea, fungi and protists in increasing amounts from converting virgin rain forest and permafrost soils, over fertilized agricultural fields and grasslands including animal husbandry, compost/waste water treatment plants, oceans, savannahs, forests of the temperate climate zones in annual amounts of 0.5 to 4.2 terragrams (Tg) N₂O-N into the atmosphere after autotrophic and hetreotrophic NH₄⁺ to NO₃- oxidation. With estimated 0.25% industries contribute to the annual atmospheric N₂O-N concentration increase.

During the last 21 years, the scientists and scholars of the M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF) have been working on the design and implementation of projects which could have a large extrapolation domain in respect of imparting a pro-nature, pro-poor, pro-women and pro-sustainable livelihood orientation to technology development and dissemination. I would like to write about a few of the MSSRF initiatives, which have now become state, national and global programmes.

Mahila Kisan Sashaktikaran Pariyojana: Strengthening the role of women in agriculture

MSSRF initiated the Mahila Kisan Sashaktikaran Pariyojana in the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra in 2007 for empowering women farmers, including the widows of farmers who had committed suicide, in areas related to enhancing the productivity, profitability and sustainability of small-scale rain-fed farming. The empowerment measures incorporated access to technology, credit, inputs and market.

Abstract

Biological drainage relies on vegetation, rather than engineering mechanisms to remove excess soil water through evapo-transpiration. It is often considered attractive because it requires only an initial investment in site development (planting of a “bio-drainage crop”) and (potentially) returns a benefit when the bio-crop is harvested for fodder, wood or fibre. Presently about one-third of the world’s irrigated area faces the threat of waterlogging. Considering long-term viability of bio-drainage, the systems would be subjected to the same scrutiny as other plant-based biological systems with regards to nutrient and salt-balance and soil considerations. Moreover, large-scale adoption of bio-drainage crops could include considerable tracts of land and socio-economic considerations.

Introduction

What is Remote Sensing?

Remote sensing means sensing the objects that are far away from the reach of our senses. It is a tool to identify the characteristics of an object without having any direct contact over it.

In other words, it can be defined as, science of acquiring information about earth’s surface viz., land cover, oceans & coastal, agriculture, forestry, geographical mapping etc, through sensing, energy emission and processing, analysing and recording reflected images.

How does it Work?

Remote sensing process involves interaction between radiation emitted from the object and the target of focus. This can be explained by the use of imaging system that follows seven elements. However, it should be noted at this point that remote sensing not only uses imaging system but also uses non-imaging sensors and sens- ing of emitted energy.

Q.1 Cluster sampling restricts the spread of sample over the population which results generally in increased sampling variance of estimators under considerataion.

Q.2 In adopting cluster sampling, few selected clusters are enumerated partially.

So far we studied direct stress (Tensile or compressive) and tangential stress (shear stress) acting on plane individually. But in many engineering problems these both stresses are acts on a plane at a same time. In such cases resultant stress on that plane will be neither pure normal nor purely shear but there will be combined effect of normal and shear stress.

Introduction

Green Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) is a relatively new and evolving concept that emerged in response to the growing global environmental challenges, including climate change, biodiversity loss, and resource depletion. It is an intersection between traditional intellectual property rights and environmental concerns, aiming to promote and protect innovation and technologies that have a positive impact on the environment and contribute to sustainable development.

The concept of Green IPR gained momentum as the world recognized the need for sustainable practices and solutions to address the adverse effects of industrialization and economic growth on the environment. Intellectual property rights, such as patents, copyrights, trademarks, and trade secrets, have long been used to incentivize and protect innovations in various fields. However, the conventional application of IPR did not explicitly consider environmental considerations.

With the rise of environmental consciousness and the acknowledgement of the limited nature of natural resources, there was a call for integrating environmental sustainability into the intellectual property framework. The idea behind Green IPR is to encourage the development and dissemination of eco-friendly technologies, products, and processes while safeguarding the rights of innovators and creators.