eChapters

ALLIC: soil family class term used in Oxisols as a calcareous and reaction class category. Soils placed in the allic class are acid and have low CEC with high amounts of KCl-extractable aluminum in a layer at least 30 cm thick within the control section. If used for agriculture, these Oxisols require large inputs of lime to displace the aluminum and raise pH.

Abstract

The Indian Peninsula in general and its southern part in particular has been thought to be a stable shield area and hence inert to younger earth movements and seismicities. However, in addition to fast relapsing seismicities, the studies carried out by earlier workers during the past three decades indicate possible pulsatory tectonism, at least since the Jurassics. The present study is a newer attempt to identify, analyse, and spatially amalgamate a large number of anomalies visibly displayed by the tectonic, fluvial, coastal, and hydrological systems in remote sensing and ground based datasets/observations, and to finally paint a fair picture on the active tectonic scenario of South India. The study reveals that the phenomena, viz. extensive soil erosion, reservoir siltation, sediment dump into the ocean, preferential migration of rivers, restricted marine regression, shrinkage of back waters, withdrawal of creeks, fall of groundwater table, etc., indicate two E–W trending ongoing tectonic (Cymatogenic) archings along Mangalore–Chennai in the north and Cochin–Ramanathapuram in the south. Intervening these two arches, a cymatogenic deep along Ponnani–Palghat–Manamelkudi exhibiting phenomena opposite to the above is observed. In addition, the characteristic tectonic, geomorphic, and hydrological anomalies observed in 1B satellite FCC data, as well as in the field, indicate N–S trending extensional, NE–SW sinistral, and NW–SE dextral strike slip faults. These anomalies and the tectonic features deduced there upon, indicate that the southern part of the Indian Peninsula is tectonically active due to the northerly to north– north-easterly directed compressive force related to post collision tectonics. This active tectonic model visualized for South India gives a further clue that the whole Indian plate is whirling like a worm with alternate E–W arching and deepening, along with block and transform faulting from Cape Comorin in the south to the Himalayas in the north.

Introduction

The Indian Peninsular Shield in general and its southern part in particular has always been thought of as being inert to younger earth movements and related seismicities / earthquakes. For this reason, geoscientists have not shown much interest in studying the Neo-active-seismotectonics of the southern part of the Indian Peninsula, mostly restricting themselves to the western (Kutch) and central (Son-Narmada) parts of India (Auden 1949, West 1962, Choubey 1970, Biswas and Deshpande 1973, Kailasam 1975, Ghosh 1976, Pal and Bhimashankaran 1976, Crawford 1978, Dessai and Peshwa 1978, Sharma 1978, Guha and Padale 1981, Kaila et al., 1981, 1985, Murty and Mishra 1981, Powar 1981, 1993, Bhagwandas and Patel 1984, Bakliwal and Ramasamy 1987, Merh 1987, Ravishankar 1987, Amalkar 1988, Ramasamy et al. 1991, Gupta 1992, Sareen et al. 1993, Ramasamy 1995a, 1998, and many others).

The word biscuit is derived from Danis biscoctus which is Latin for twice cooked bread and refers to bread rusks that were made for mariners (ships biscuits) since the Middle Ages. The dough pieces were baked and then dried out in another cooler oven. All biscuits are made with flour (usually wheat flour) and all have low moisture content and thereby have long shelf life if protected from moisture and oxygen. It includes items also known as crackers (that make a noise of cracking when broken), Hard sweet and semi –sweet biscuits, cookies (which is the name that originated from Dutch word koekje meaning a small cake) and wafers, which are baked between hot plates from a fluid batter. The name cookie was adopted in North America where the term ‘biscuit’ can be confused with small soda raised breads or muffins. In other countries the term cookie is used primarily for wire cut products of rather rough shape, which often contain large pieces of various ingredients such as nuts, etc. The term ‘biscuit’ is used in Britain to describe a flat, crisp, baked product; the term cookie is reserved for something softer and thicker. Cookies are made from soft wheat flour and are characterized by formula high in sugar and shortening and relatively low in water. Similar product is known as biscuit in our country. In USA the term ‘cookie’ covers any flat, crisp, baked good. Cracker is a term reserved for biscuit of low sugar and fat content, frequent bland or savoury. Crackers are usually made from developed dough whereas cookies are made from weaker flour. These foods have in common their ability to stay palatable for a long period of time. Their ease of transportation and their ready consumption without any further preparation make them high on the list of staple snacks

Cactus (Opuntia ficus-indica), commonly known as prickly pear, belongs to the family Cactaceae. In local parlence, cactus is called nagphani or danda thohar. In Tamil Nadu, it is commonly known as chapathi balli. The word “cactus” derived through Latin from the ancient Greek kaktos, a name used by Theophrastus for a spiny plant (Johnson et al., 1972) which may have been the Cynara cardunculus (Sonnante et al., 2007). It is a storehouse of virtues that have been commercially unexploited so far in India. In addition, certain genera, such as Optuntia and Nopalea have economically useful plant parts. Different parts of the cactus can be used as fruit and vegetable for human consumption, fodder for cattle, and raw material for various industries to prepare plywood, soap, dyes, adhesives and glue, pharmaceutical products for treating blood sugar and various other disorders, and cosmetics such as shampoo, cream, and body lotions, etc. (Barbera et al., 1995 and  Pimienta, 1994). Similarly, the tender young pads of Optunia and Nopalea species, known as nopalitos, are extensively used as a fresh green vegetable in Mexico and Texas. Even its seeds can be used as flavouring agents. Use of cactus pear as a waterproof paint for homes is also reported.

The Context

A series of interventions initiated in mid-1960s that led to the green revolution in cereal production transformed the country from a situation of food def iciency to self sufficiency. The green revolution was however, restricted to productivity improvements in cereals especially wheat and rice in the initial decades, primarily grown in irrigated regions. In subsequent decades, productivity increased in other crops, namely oilseeds, sugarcane, cotton, fruits and vegetables. The Green Revolution generally by passed India’s vast rain fed tracts, especially arid zones, hill and mountain ecosystems and coastal regions, thus exacerbating agro-ecological and economic disparities. Although self sufficiency was attained in food grain production, potential of different crop varieties are yet to be attained. The main features of the green revolution were:

• exclusive focus on food grains

• intensive use of water, fertilizer and pesticides to maximize yields from High Yielding Varieties (HYVs)

• practically no focus on sustainability issues

• benefited the resource-rich and large farmers and

• dependent on few technological options focusing on hybrids, changes in plant architecture.

This chapter presents the analysis, interpretation and discussion of the collected data from the study area in an effort to attain the objective of the study. The data collected were analyzed with appropriate statistical test and presented in a systematic format.

The results of the study are presented under the following subheadings:

4.1 Distribution of respondents according to different socio-economic variables

Basic information of the respondents under the study has been given according to the socio-economic characteristic of the respondents. Variables like age, education, marital status, family size, family type, milk production per day, social status, farming experience, herd size, land holding and annual income are presented in the following table 4.1

This chapter deals with the findings of the study along with the discussion based on the analysis. This study tried to represent its findings as per the objectives of the study. At the end of this chapter, interrelation has been made, explanation has been tried to put out down and attempt has been done to reveal the cause behind it. The results and their pertaining discussion are presented according to the specific objectives of the study.

This table 6.1 presents the distribution of 15 independent variables (x1-x15 ) in terms of their Minimum, Maximum, Mean, Variance, Standard deviation, and Coefficient of variation.

Forecasting and warning systems for pests and diseases play an important role in Integrated Pest Management (IPM) and in farm advisory work. Forecasting pest outbreaks during the growing season and applying control measures only when necessary is very important in conventional farming, but also in organic farming, to increase profitability while, at the same time, minimising negative effects on flora, fauna, and groundwater (Sigvald, 2014). Number of disease-warning systems have been developed and validated for dozens of crops. A few are in wide use by growers, and represent encouraging success stories in IPM. Most warning systems, however, have not made the transition from scientific validation to real-world application. his implementation shortfall is not limited to diseasewarning systems, but also characterizes most other types of agricultural decision support systems (DSSs), whose rate of grower adoption is widely perceived as disappointing (Mark L. Gleason et.al., 2008). 

The forest manager aims at producing maximum forest produce of desired quality from the unit forest area in a shortest possible period at a reasonable cost. There is a wide gap between production and requirement from forests. Increasing population and improved standard of living increases demand for forest products. Achieving this in a natural forest is more arduous job. Actual growing stocks in natural stand are poor in terms of vigour, size and quality. The regeneration from these poor stands will produce inferior quality trees. Hence management of forest is inevitable for its improvement.

Downy mildew has been reported on a wide range of ornamentals, especially those in home gardens, but only in a few instances the diseases have been sufficiently severe and widespread .Generally the diseases have been of most concern in a few ornamentals grown as crops either out doors or under glass or in nurseries, where many seedlings are raised in close proximity, often under humid conditions which favour this disease. Downy mildew having importance on ornamentals and flowering plants are:

11.1. Downy Mildews of Anemone (Windflower)

Two downy mildews are reported on cultivated anemones. The one is caused by Plasmopara pygmaea while the other is caused by Peronospora sp.
Pathogen .1. : Plasmopara pygmaea
It was first recorded in Britain on decaen anemones near Liskeard, Cornwall, in september 1917

Symptoms
It causes blackening of the foliage of the planting. The sporangiophores emerged from stomata at the periphery of the blackened zone. The fine white mildew covers the under surface of the leaves. Plants become discolored with aborted stamens. Oospores are found in the discolored tissues.

8.1 Pest Risk Analysis

Pest Risk Analysis (PRA) is a form of risk analysis conducted by regulatory plant health authorities to identify the appropriate phytosanitary measures required to protect plant resources against new or emerging pests and regulated pests of plants or plant products. Specifically pest risk analysis is a term used within the International Plant Protection Conventions (IPPC) (Article 2.1) and is defined within the glossary of phytosanitary terms as “the process of evaluating biological or other scientific and economic evidence to determine whether an organism is a pest, whether it should be regulated, and the strength of any phytosanitary measures to be taken against it. In a phytosanitary context, the term plant pest, or simply pest, refers to any species, strain or biotype of plant, animal or pathogenic agent injurious to plants or plant products and includes plant pathogenic fungi, bacteria, fungus-like organisms, viruses, nematodes and virus like organisms as well as insects, mites and weeds.

1. Tuber crops Starches

Tropical root and tuber crops are rich sources of starch (Ghosh et al., 1988; Chadha and Nair, 1994; Moorthy, 1994) besides many vitamins, minerals etc (Table 1). In addition to food applications, they have important industrial uses; especially, cassava in view of the considerable starch content. Cereals form the major source of commercial starches in most developed countries, but cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) and to a lesser extent, sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas Lam.) tubers are used for starch extraction in India, Brazil, Thailand, Indonesia, Philippines and China.

The rootstocks are known to have a profound effect on the vigour, productivity, precocity, fruit quality and tree longevity of scion varieties grafted or budded onto them. They also influence the susceptibility of scion trees to various diseases and pests. It is well recognised that optimum performance of scion varieties depends on the proper selection of rootstocks for a given set of agro-climatic conditions. To achieve success in orcharding, always select a right type of rootstock for the particular fruit or variety. In addition, it is important to raise the stock seedlings in a proper manner so that there is good germination and the stock seedlings are ready for budding/grafting in the shortest possible time. Rootstock seeds of desired fruits and varieties must be ensured from reliable sources.

Introduction

Oilseeds are the third most important group of crops after cereals and pulses in India. These are important food crops which also find their place in industrial use. Oilseeds have been an integral component of Indian agriculture since time immemorial. On the oilseeds map of the world, India occupies a prominent position, both in terms of acreage and production. India is the 4^th largest edible oil economy in the world and contributes about 10% of the world oilseeds production, 6-7% of the global production of vegetable oil, and nearly 7% of protein meal. The oilseeds production statistics of the world for the year 2016-17 includes a production of 549.98 million tonnes from an area of 234.57 million ha with the productivity of 2.34 tonnes/ha. The top countries include U.S.A., China and India with U.S.A. ranking first in all area, production and productivity of 39.25 million ha, 126.94 million tonnes and 3.23 tonnes/ha, respectively. Next is China which ranks 2^nd in production and productivity but 3^rd in terms of area; the area, production and productivity being 22.72 million ha, 54.92 million tonnes and 2.42 tonnes/ha, respectively. India ranks 2^nd in terms of area, i.e. 33.83 million ha but 3^rd in both production and productivity being 36.32 million metric tonnes and 1.07 tonnes/ha respectively.

Presently, potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is the world’s third most important crop, after wheat and rice. Tubers of the potato plant have been used as a primary nutritional staple and a carbohydrate source in many diets and as the basis for a variety of processed products throughout the world. Owing to climate change, potato production is expected to fall in the coming decades, predictions asserting that global potato yields will decrease by 9–18% in most parts of the world. Availability of new varieties less sensitive to these environmental cues is thus crucial to overcome the negative effects of global warming. Of various developmental phases, tuberization is the most sensitive stage in potato limiting its climate associated geographical distribution and actual yield.  Hence, understanding the tuberization process becomes even more important in the face of changing global climate. The induction of tuber formation is a key developmental transition for the production of potatoes.  Understanding the regulation of tuber induction is essential to devise strategies to improve tuber yield and quality.

7.1 Introduction

For qualitative and quantitative analysis of phytochemicals, chromatography can be used. Gas chromatography is a powerful means of performing qualitative and quantitative measurements of complex mixtures of volatile substances, which are vaporizable without decomposition.Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GCMS) system is a widely used instrument for qualitative and quantitative analysis of solid, liquid, and gaseous samples. Samples are converted into gaseous ions and then separated on the basis of their mass-tocharge ratio. This technique is capable of providing information about 1. the qualitative and quantitative composition of both inorganic and organic analytes in complex mixtures; 2. the structure of a wide variety of complex molecular structures; 3. isotopic ratios of atoms in samples; and 4. the structure and composition of solid surfaces. High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is a physico-chemical separation technique for the qualitative and quantitative analysis of mixtures consisting of compounds soluble in solvents, e.g. all organic compounds and inorganic ions. Advances in the applications of thin-layer chromatography (TLC) and high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC) for the separation, detection, and qualitative and quantitative determination of compounds has also increased.

Introduction

Scope and importance

Aquaculture is breeding, rearing and husbandry of aquatic animals such as f ishes, crustaceans and molluscs for food, ornament and sports. It is a husbandry involving special animals, the cold blooded vertebrates and invertebrates, whose physiology, growth, metabolic activities and overall performance depend heavily on ambient aquatic temperature and environment. Therefore, husbandry and the health management of aquatic animals is quite different from that of the other land based warm blooded animals.

Aquaculture is one of the fastest growing food production sectors in the world including India. Three decades ago, few species were cultured in India mainly in inland waters and then aquaculture was contributing less than 10 % of total f ish production in the country. In the last 25 years, there is a rapid growth in aquaculture with annual rate of 7-8% with significant contribution (above 60%)to total fish production today. The number of species cultured today in India including ornamentals is close to 40. Besides, a good number of plant and animal fish food organisms are cultured to support the hatcheries and nurseries in aquaculture. The area under aquaculture is increasing steadily in inland and coastal brackish water while marine water is also being added up for aquaculture slowly and steadily. Very interestingly, non-traditional environment such as manmade saline soils are also explored successfully for aquaculture. Intensification of culture activity with high stocking density artificial feed and fertilizers is another dimension of aquaculture noteworthy. Large scale movement of aquatic animals and their raw or processed products across national and international borders is important from aquaculture production and health point of view. In general, aquaculture package of practices alter the very water in terms of its chemistry and microbial load and has significant negative impact on the health of fish in culture system.

Microbial inoculants in agriculture, horticulture and forestry can be defined as preparations containing strains of microorganisms which can augment the microbiological process such as nitrogen fixation, phosphate mobilization, excretion of growth promoting substances, decomposition of organic wastes, biocontrol of insect pests and diseases etc. Thus they become an important component of sustainable agriculture. Microbial inoculants are based on renewable sources available in soil and nature and are low cost input and eco-friendly. These inoculants carrying the microorganisms when applied to soil/plant promote plant growth and productivity.

Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) is the third important beverage crop grown for its seeds known as beans, used mainly in chocolate industry. It is the source of cocoa butter and cocoa mass.