eChapters

Introduction

Seed spices include group of annuals whose dried fruit or seeds are used as spices. These are characterised by pungency, strong odour, sweet or bitter taste. Coriander, cumin, fennel and fenugreek occupy largest area among the seed spices. However, ajowan, dil, celery, anise, nigella and caraway having secondary place as far as area and production is concerned. Major area under seed spices is in Rajasthan and Gujarat, and other seed spices producing states are Chattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh. The seed spices account for about 36% and 17% of the total area and production of spices in country. The export of seed spices from India during 2008-09 was 4.71 thousand tonnes worth Rs. 54914.8 million rupees. The per cent export growth rate during 1995-96, 2000-01, 2005-06, 2007-08 and 2008-09 was 12.0, 11.0, 8.0, 36.0 and 19.0% in terms of value and 13.0, 3.0, 8, 13.0 and 6.0 in respect of quantity, respectively.

Integrated plant nutrient management includes use of organic manure/ compost, bio-fertilizer, chemical fertilizer, green manuring, residue management, legume based cropping system, use of nutrient-responsive varieties, proper method and time oforganic manure and fertilizer application, soil and water management to minimize the nutrient losses occurring through volatilization, denitrification, runoff and leaching. Application of plant nutrients in proper balance form is also a part of Integrated Plant Nutrient Management (IPNS) system. Supply of nutrients to seed spices in appropriate quantities and at the correct times is essential for economically and environmentally sustainable agriculture. Soil organic matter, crop residues and manures play a vital role in the supply of macro and micronutrients and the transformation between the various organic and inorganic forms often control availability, both for plant uptake and loss to the environment (Aishwath and Vashishtha, 2008; Lal, et al., 2009).

Abstract

The increase incidence of plant diseases have created challenging troubles in commercial agriculture and posed economical threats to both conventional and organic farming systems. To combat these problems there has been indiscriminate use of the synthetic chemicals that created different types of environmental and toxicological problems. Therefore attention has been directed towards exploitation of plant products or phytoextracts as novel chemotherapeutants in plant protection. Numerous botanical pesticides have been used globally and more has been discovered in due course of time. Pyrethroids, neem, etc are well established commercially as botanical pesticides and recently some essential oils of higher plants have also been used as antimicrobials as they are safe and widely accepted by the consumers. Use of phytoextracts may thus offer a new source of antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral agents against microorganisms. Botanical pesticides are best fitting for organic food production in industrialized countries and can plays greater role in the production and post-harvest protection of food products in developing countries.

Sulphur (S) occurs in soil in both organic and inorganic forms. Inorganic S fraction may occur as sulphate (SO₄^2-) and compounds of lower oxidation state such as sulphide (S^2-), polysulphide (S_n^2-), thiosulphate (S₂O₃^2-) and elemental sulphur (S⁰). In well drained soils inorganic S usually present as sulphate. Under anaerobic condition (reduced or waterlogged soil) inorganic S mainly occur as sulphide and under extreme condition as elemental S form. Estimation of S carried out in two steps:

2.1 Isotopes

In 1913, J.J. Thomson and Aston introduced atmospheric neon into the positive ray apparatus and got two parabolas corresponding to masses 20 and 22, with the intensities of the tracks corresponding to the ratio of 9:1, irrespective of the condition of discharge and pressure. This indicated that neon existed in two forms having atomic weights 20 and 22, and at the same time it could not be distinguished chemically. These two types are known as isotopes of neon (iso = same, topas = place in the periodic table). When the average atomic weight of the ordinary neon was calculated based on the abundance of these two forms in the ordinary neon, it was found to be 20.2 which agreed the chemical methods. Thus the existence of isotopes of a given element was discovered.

Formerly isotopes were defined chemical properties but with different atomic weights, the same atomic number and occupying the same position in the periodic classification. Later this definition was slightly modified and now isotopes are defined as nuclides with the same number of protons but differing in the number of neutrons, for example, ordinary hydrogen (also called protium ; proton =1 and neutron =0), deuterium (heavy hydrogen ; proton =1 and neutron = 1), and tritum super heavy hydrogen (proton =1 and neutron =2). Investigations using mass spectrographs have revealed more than 280 isotopes which are stable artificially radioactive isotopes.

Introduction

Agriculture is the backbone of Indian economy. Good harvest helps in moving the economy in the right direction. The agriculture sector accounts for 17% of US$ 2.6 trillion economy of India (Anonymous, 2019a) and employs 54.6% of the country’s workforce (Anonymous, 2019b). India occupies first place in the production of pulses, jute and milk, and second place in rice, wheat, cotton, sugarcane, vegetables and fruits (FAO STAT, 2020). The agriculture export constitutes a fifth of total exports made by India and self-reliance in agriculture is required to become an economic superpower. The green revolution has paved the way from begging bowl to overflowing granaries in our country. The overall food production has increased from 52 MT in 1950-51 to 295 MT in 2019-20, which is a phenomenal growth of more than five times in seven decades span. Of the several factors that influenced the sea change in agriculture production and productivity, the quality seed of improved varieties occupies a crucial position. The green revolution was ushered in by the import of 18000 tonnes of seed of high yielding wheat varieties Lerma Rojo and Sonara 64 and rice variety IR-8. Till today, the quality seed alone contributes to 15-20% of total production (Chauhan et al., 2015), indicating its importance in agricultural production of the country. The problematic global scenarios like economic recession, climate change, water scarcity, population explosion, pollution or new pandemics drives the states to be more self-reliant. To be self-reliant is not to be altogether “self-contained”. We should be opened for the best material available anywhere in the world, and simultaneously we should develop our infrastructure and industry to cater to the needs of our population as well as export to other countries. Seed sector is one of the potential areas for boosting self-reliance as well as has a lot of export potential. The government push for self-reliance under the present COVID-19 pandemic situation by infusing INR one lakh crore as agricultural infrastructure fund that will help in developing several start-ups. The success of this movement mainly depends on innovations in every sector, including the seed sector and simultaneously, there is a need to extend it to the regulatory mechanisms. This chapter will discuss the possible areas of innovations that are already in the pipeline and those to be targeted in the areas of seed production, quality assurance, marketing and regulation along with policy interventions needed to boost the seed sector.

SWOT Analysis

SWOT analysis is a strategic planning tool used by organizations to identify and evaluate their internal strengths, weaknesses, and external opportunities and threats. It is divided into four key components

Strengths (internal capabilities that provide an advantage)

Weaknesses (internal limitations that may hinder performance)

Opportunities (external factors that could be leveraged for growth or improvement)

Threats (external challenges that could negatively impact the organization)

By assessing these areas, a company can better understand its competitive position, make informed decisions, and develop strategies to capitalize on opportunities while addressing weaknesses and mitigating potential risks. SWOT analysis is widely used in business, marketing, and project management for strategic planning and decision-making.

13.1 Biosafety Research Trials: Scope and Implementation
Introduction
Biosafety research trials serve as a critical phase in the evaluation and regulation of genetically modified organisms (GMOs), particularly transgenic crops and microorganisms. These trials assess potential environmental and health impacts under confined and controlled conditions before the organism can be considered for commercial release. With the expansion of biotechnology applications, especially in agriculture, pharmaceuticals, and industrial processes, the need for scientifically rigorous and ethically sound biosafety research trials has become increasingly important.
13.1.1. Scope of Biosafety Research Trials
1.1. Definition and Objectives
Biosafety research trials are confined, stepwise, and monitored field or laboratory-based studies designed to evaluate the safety, stability, performance, and unintended effects of GMOs. The overarching objectives include:
• Assessment of potential risks to human health, non-target organisms, and the environment.
• Evaluation of gene stability, trait expression, and environmental adaptability.
• Monitoring of gene flow and potential invasiveness or weediness.
• Determination of agronomic efficacy under field conditions.
• Data generation for regulatory dossiers and risk assessment reports.

India’s vast geographical expanse and diverse climatic conditions have led to the development of distinct agro-climatic zones. These zones, as defined by the Planning Commission and ICAR, provide a scientific basis for selecting location-specific farming systems that ensure sustainable productivity, livelihood security, and efficient resource use. The feasibility of farming systems in these zones depends on factors such as rainfall, temperature, soil type, water availability, cropping intensity, and socio-economic conditions. The feasibility of different farming systems significantly depends on the specific agro-climatic zone, which encompasses factors such as temperature, rainfall, soil type, and elevation. India’s vast and varied geography is divided into 15 agro-climatic zones by the Planning Commission. Each zone has specific soil types, climatic conditions, topography, and resource availability. These factors influence the most feasible and sustainable farming systems. Below is a detailed description of suitable farming systems for each zone.
1. Western Himalayan Region (Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand)
• Climate: Cold temperate to alpine.
• Feasible Farming Systems:
º Horticulture-based (apple, pear, walnut)
º Agri-horti-pastoral (wheat/barley + fruits + sheep/goat)
º Apiculture and sericulture
• Justification: Hilly terrain and climate favor fruits and small livestock.

Plants, with the help of photosynthesis, convert simple molecules (like carbon dioxide and water) into more complex molecules (anabolism) through various chemical reactions. Animals synthesize more complex molecules (anabolism) from monomer units through multiple chemical reactions. Anabolism refers to a biosynthesis process involving the sequences of biochemical reactions by which complex molecules are formed in living cells from available monomer units. Anabolic processes include the biosynthesis of complex biomolecules like carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids. The anabolic processes require energy from high-energy bond compounds like ATP.
The anabolic processes related to the biosynthesis of carbohydrates include
(1) Gluconeogenesis and
(2) Glycogenesis
11.1 Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis is the synthesis of new glucose molecules from noncarbohydrate molecules. The non-carbohydrate molecules that are used for gluconeogenesis are derived from glycolysis, lipolysis, and proteolysis. Examples are pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, and glucogenic amino acids. The liver and kidneys are the preferred organs for the gluconeogenesis process. It also occurs to some extent in the brain. Blood glucose levels are maintained at physiological concentrations through the process of gluconeogenesis in humans and ruminants. The blood glucose drops below normal levels during various conditions like fasting, starvation, pregnancy, lactation, fever, and low carbohydrate diets.

A. ICAR Agricultural Institutes

• Central Agricultural Research Institute (CARI), Post Box No. 181. Andaman Nicobar & Lakshwadeep Group of Islands, Port Blair.
• Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI), Jodhpur, (Rajasthan). Website: www.icar.org.in (Rajasthan).
• Central Avian Research Institute (CARI), Izatnagar, (Uttar Pradesh)
• Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute (CIFRI), Barrackpore (West Bengal). Web site: www.cifri.com.
• Central Institute for Cotton Research (CICR), P.O. No. 225, G.P.O., Panjari, Wardha Road, Nagpur (Maharashtra).
• Central Institute for Freshwater Aquaculture (CIFA), P.O. Kausalyaganga, Bhubaneshwar (Orissa).

ABSTRACT

More than 80 per cent area of the Shivaliks is rainfed. Soil erosion greater than 80 t ha^-1yr^-1 is being recorded from denuded hills. Though, trees are nurtured on the farms but no definite pattern of trees on field bunds is followed, (neither from spacing point of view nor from species point of view). Further, these trees are not silviculturally managed to get best output from tree components as well as for posing less competition to the crops. Shivaliks has a wide range of climate, geology, soil, topography and socio-economic strata coupled with wide variety of vegetation. Such variations provide ample opportunities for developing site specific agroforestry systems.

Radioactivity

The discovery of radioactivity, in general, actually came about on a few different fonts. First was the discovery of x-ray radiation that was artificially generated in a laboratory, followed by the discovery of several elements that naturally emit radiation when the nucleus of the atoms disintegrates or decay. These are the elements that today are called radioactive elements and are said to have unstable nuclei.

Glycogenesis helps to maintain blood glucose, as it is a primary source of energy for every cell. An inadequate supply of glucose to the body may lead to the failure of the vital organs. Glucose, when in excess, is synthesized into glycogen and stored (glycogenesis), mainly in the liver and muscles (including the uterus). It is also found in other tissues, such as the kidney, brain, heart, and adipose tissues. The stored liver glycogen is broken down (glycogenolysis) into blood glucose when needed. Still, the glycogen stored in muscle is broken down to glucose 1-phosphate and converted to blood glucose later. Either the synthesis or breakdown pathway is primarily active at a time in tissues. Glycogen synthesis and its breakdown are not reversible processes.
The percentage of glycogen stored in skeletal muscles is less ( 1% to 2%) than in the liver (10%). Still, the total quantity of glycogen is greater in muscles due to their greater mass than an animal’s total liver mass. Muscle mass, on average, ranges from 40 to 45 % of body weight for the most mature mammals.
Glycogen synthesis (glycogenesis) is an anabolic process forming a branched homopolysaccharide made of several chains of alpha D-glucose units linked by α-1,4 glycosidic bonds in a linear chain and nearly every ten glucose residues; the chain branches off via α-1,6 glycosidic linkages. The α-glycosidic bonds give rise to a helical polymer structure. The number of glucose units in a single glycogen molecule varies (1,700 to -600,000 units). The glycogen granules are formed on the glycogenin protein in the center, so it acts as a primer, and their number determines the total number of glycogen particles.

Loss of experimental observations is a common practical problem in forestry and agricultural experiments because seeds, seedlings, plants, and trees may be damaged by natural events, animals, anthropogenic activities, or other causes. This chapter presents the missing plot technique for estimating unavailable observations so that an experiment can continue to be analysed. It explains why missing observations can reduce the information and precision of an experiment and discusses alternative approaches for handling incomplete data. The chapter focuses particularly on the method of least squares and the iteration method. Applications include estimation of missing values in Randomized Block Designs and other experimental layouts used in forestry research.

The first species of the genus Azotobacter, named Azotobacter chroococcum family Azotobacteriaceae, was isolated from the soil in Holland in 1901. Azotobacter represents the main group of heterotrophic free living nitrogen-fixing bacteria principally inhabiting neutral or alkaline soils. Azotobacter chroococcum and Azotobacter agilis were studied by Beijerinck (1901). In subsequent years several other types of Azotobacter group have been found in the soil and rhizosphere such as Azotobacter vinelandii, Lipman (1903); Azotobacter beijernckii, Lipman (1904); Azotobacter paspali, Döbereiner (1966), Azotobacter nigricans, Krasil’nikov (1949); Azotobacter armenicus, Thompson and Skerman (1981); Azotobacter salinestris, Page and Shivprasad (1991). A. paspali while A. agilis was categorized  under the genus Azomonas (Table 7.1).

INTRODUCTION

‘Wilting’ is a broad terminology used by Plant Protection Scientists.  Any disturbance or damage to the normal physiology of the plant leads to ‘wilting’ of plants.  Wilting in cotton is attributed to many factors and it is necessary to single out the actual cause for wilting before suggesting any remedial measure (Kannan, 1991).
Wilting in cotton could be due to any one or more factors as indicated below:

Q.1 If two type ot factors, say (A & B) have to be studied in the same experiment where A requires larger plot size and B requires smaller plot size and structure of the experiment is that of plots within blocks and blocks within replication then such layout is known as split plot design.

Study done in India on various aspects of marine copepods are those of Krishnaswamy (1952), Kartha (1959), Ummerkutty (1960, 1966), Ganapathi et al. (1961), Kasturirangan (1963), Saraswathy (1966), Abraham (1970), Silas and Pillai (1973), Sarladevi (1979), Sarkar et al. (1985), Madhupratap and Haridas (1986), Wells and Rao (1987), Gajbhiye et al. (1991), Madhupratap (1999), Kesarkar and Anil (2010), Ramanibai and Shanthi (2011), Srichandan et al. (2014). Jayabarathi et al. (2015), Nishida et al. (2015), Arunpandi et al. (2017), Loka et al. (2017), Deepika et al. (2019), Kaviyarasan et al. (2019), Khandagale et al. (2022), Nawaz et al. (2023), Thangaraj and Vijayanand (2023).

Copepods are planktonic crustaceans, which occur in marine, fresh as well as brackish waters. They represent about 80% of the zooplankton in the ocean. There are more than 210 families, 2400 genera and 24000 species identified in this group. Planktonic copepods are considered to be the most abundant metazoans on earth.

The name 'copepod' is derived from the Greek words meaning 'animals with oar shaped foot' i.e., ‘kope’ means oar and ‘podos’ means foot (Stottrup,2003). Copepods are important secondary producers and primary consumers and ultimately contribute significantly to the food chain in large ecosystems.

Copepods are very hardly planktonic forms which can withstand most of the unfavourable conditions and can produce diapause eggs and resting eggs to survive in these conditions. Most of the copepods can adjust wide range of salinity and temperature levels. Due to its hardy nature, copepods can be easily introduced into all types of water bodies.

Copepods forms important food for many aquatic animals especially fishes. Certain fishes and fish larvae were evolutionary adapted to feed on copepods. Copepods have been found to be nutritionally superior to almost all other live feeds.